World Politics

CHAPTER 2. Theoretical schools in International research

The events, which were going on at the International arena, should be theoretically considered, because facts themselves determined only those events, which have been happened, but do not explain, why this or another event was held. To Understand and explain the events is important not only for the researchers, but first for those, who works in the practical sphere, who is somehow linked with the International interrelations, for politicians, diplomats, businessman, journalists etc. Concretely on the base of such explanation can be evaluated and making prognosis on comparatively tendencies of the further development: according to the expression of the famous psychologist K. Levin, there no more practical than the good theory (Lebedeva, 2007). At the same time, as it was later ironically noticed, the problem remains concretely to find such theory. But it is the task of researchers.

Theoretical approaches during the history were developing and changing, were making influence on each other. At the first stage, the understanding of the International Relations was going on in the framework of the different scientific disciplines, first – history.

Many historic events of the XX Century (two world wars, creation the weapon of mass destruction, cold war, international terrorism development etc.) also was stimulating the development of the theory in the field of International researches. Besides, the potential of the scientific thought itself in the social sciences of the XX Century promoted more theoretical understanding of the processes, which were going on at the International arena. By this reasons, the theories of International relations and World Politics gained the rapid development in the XX Century, first of all in USA, which has given the reason for the famous researcher Stanley Hoffmann, who gained the education in Paris, but who later emigrated to USA, to call the theory in International relations with a sufficient portion of the sarcasm “American Sociology” (Hoffmann, 1965).

International Relations are very complex and consist many aspects, due to it, there is no common theory, which could explain the whole diversity of International reality. During the research of International relations and World Politics, it is important to discuss about as a basic ones the following theoretical approaches: Realism (in the modern version it is presented mostly by neo-realism), liberalism (today it is based on the neo-liberalism direction), neo-Marxism and postmodernism. Discussions among the representatives of those schools give the possibility for the better understanding the meaning of those processes, which are going on at the International arena.

After the ending of this lecture, students will gain the knowledge about different theories and concepts within the World Politics and International relations, particularly:

Realism

Neorealism

Liberalism

Neoliberalism

Neo-Marxism

Postmodernism

Balance of power

Real politics

Structural realism

Collective security

Idealism

Holism

Transnationalism

Complex Interdependence

World-System theory

Dependence theory

Neocolonialism

Critical theories

Constructivism

Feminism

Gender differences

Liberal Feminism

Postmodernist feminism

Postmodern feminism

International regimes theory

Theory of Democratic Peace

Geopolitics

Peace Research Studies

Conflict resolution

Conflicts regulation

Theory of structural violence

Foreign policy decision-making

Theory of rational choice

Game theory

Prisoners dilemma

Chaos theory

English (British) school of International relations

The French School of Sociology

Theories in the framework of International Economic relations

Chapter 3.

Plurality of the Transnational actors of the Modern World

To the world politics are involved the states, different types of organizations, movements, business-structures etc. Practically each person in the contemporary period more or less is part of the world politics, feels its influence on himself/herself. However, among of the many different participants there are those, who actively and consciously forms the world politics, presents his projects of the world development, works out peculiar rules of the political interconnection, determines the tendencies of the political development of the world etc. thus, represents the “maker” of the world politics – there are transnational actors (TNA), i.e. which have their activities beyond of their national states. Concretely significance and scale of the activity, differs TNA from the other participants of the World Politics.

In the framework of this lecture, for the increasing the students knowledge within world politics, the following topics will be considered:

States in the world political system;

Grouping of the states according to the size of the territory, system of governance, administrative-territorial division, foreign policy priorities, geographical location etc.

Intergovernmental organizations in the world political system;

International Non-Governmental Organizations;

Transnational Business and other Transnational Actors.

Chapter 4

Transformation of the system of international relations and political system of the world

In the second half of the XX century, despite activity and plurality of TNA (Trans National Actors), complication of their interaction, the system of the international (interstate) relations (IR) still remains the most significant structural element in modern political system of the world that is defined by a key role of the states. But at the end of the XX century, there are also important changes in this area. With the end of Cold War, the era of the bipolar world dividing the world into two camps has been ended. But what succeeded this IR system? In the 1990s the discussion about the nature of the IR new system returned. Disputes, mainly conducted by the researchers working in realistic tradition went around two main points of view on the new system of the international relations:

• the world became mono-polar (or unipolar).

• the world became multipolar (multi-polar) where several centers of force are allocated.

At the end of this lecture, the students will have the knowledge on the following topics:

The system of International (Interstate) Relations

World Political System

Bipolar World

Unipolar World

Multipolar World

Unilateralism

Stability

Superpowers

Middle States

Small States

Paradox of participation

Polycentric World

Transnational Centers

Fragmentation

World Political Order

World Economic Order

Chapter 5

World politics as a scientific discipline

World politics as any scientific discipline has a history of its formation and development. Its study allows us to better understand the subject area in which researchers work: to find out how it comes into contact with the fields of other scientific disciplines, which have close relations with world politics, in what directions are going on the scientific novelties and where new discoveries can be expected and what problems are most promising and perspective.

Science is impossible without defining research methods. In world politics there are sharp discussions about how to study the rich political reality of the modern world.

Within thi8s lecture, students will study the following topics:

The formation of world politics as a science and its relationship with other disciplines;

The development of world politics in the late 1990s and early 2000s and its modern state;

Levels of analysis and methods of research in the world politics.

Main Tendencies, Problems and Aspects of the World Politics

Transformation of the basis of the world political system is connected with the macro-political tendencies of the modern world – globalization, localization, integration and disintegration, democratization and keeping the main forms of the authoritarian power etc. All those factors cause many other consequences.

New problems and challenges have been emerged, which were not existed earlier, or which were not considered so actually (for example, ecological problems). By the new way and in the other context has started to be reviewed old problems (particularly related to the security, poverty, conflicts). At the same time, in the political agenda the previous questions, first related to the disarmament, arms control has remained.

The outgoing epoch of the Westphalia world is replacing, far from without contradictions, by a new era, the contours of which are "outlined" so far only in the most general form. With more and more clear forms are determined the new aspects and dimensions of International Relations – economic, legal, ecologic, and directions, which are connected with the development of the human resource. Finally, the necessity of the management the complex, new formatted world and to find the ways and mechanisms of the alignment of interests and aspirations has been emerged.

Tendencies of the world development, as the challenges of the modern world, its new dimensions and problems of regulation on the world arena the actions of different actors is located in the center of attention of the world politics as science and are reflected in the appropriate parts and sections of this book and lecture course.

After the end of this lecture, the students will have an opportunity to gain the knowledge in such fields as:

Trends in the development of the modern world

Politics and International Relations

International relations and International Politics

The Nature of the International Politics

Content and Principles of International Politics

Theory and Practice of International Relations

Typology of international relations

Features of the Present Stage of International Relations

New Trends in the Development of Modern International Relations

Global Security

New World Order

Chapter 8.

Integration and democratization of the world as tendencies of modern stage of its development

Globalization, being the central trend of the modern stage of world development, is accompanied by integration processes, or by integration. It’s not by chance that one of the approaches to globalization suggests considering it as continuous in the historical plan expansion of that space, on which happens the intensive interaction of people. Nevertheless, integration is only a part of the globalization process, albeit one of the most significant. First of all, speaking about integration, its necessary to keep in mind that it implies rapprochement of state actors. Non-state actors usually are not considered when studying integration processes or at least they end up on the periphery of research attention. In this regard more accurate will be arguments about inclusion of this or that country in integration, rather than globalization processes, as the state is integrated entirely based on the signing of the intergovernmental agreements. Globalization, firstly, does not imply such agreements, and secondly, it can flow differently for various regions of one state. Alone internal regions of the state are successfully included in globalization processes, others end up as outsiders. With extreme differences inclusion of different internal regions in globalization arises a threat of breakdown of state.

Other important point when analyzing integration is that this process involves cooperation between states in different spheres, areas and forms. Respectively, there’s division and different kinds of cooperation. Thus, it can be indicated on the following basis for identifying the concrete types of integration:

¨ Political, economic, scientific-technical etc. (by subject);

¨ Global, regional, sub-regional integration (on a geographic basis).

In this case, it can be noted another version, that cooperation and integration can go “in breadth”, as a result of increase in the number of participants in the process, also “in depth”, through intensification of interaction in different spheres among the same participants.

The practice of interstate cooperation has been existing for a long time. However, only in the second half of twentieth century the interstate cooperation in a large scale acquired constant forms. This, in the first place, is connected with the intensification of cooperation, enlargement of its spheres and development of integrational processes, which demanded the establishment of intergovernmental formations and institutions. Therefore, another important point, characterizing integration, is not only cooperation, but creation of a mechanism for interstate cooperation, by other words – institutionalization of cooperation. In this case integration is, firstly, closely related to the development of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), which offer formation of interstate decision-making mechanisms. Through joint institutions the integration processes are carried out. Secondly, integration is considered in two points of views: as a process and as a result of interaction of the states.

What encourages states to integration? First of all – the existence of common problems, which is easier to solve and only possible, by joint efforts. The development of the world in the end of twentieth century and in the beginning of the twenty first century led to strengthening of international contacts, interdependence of the world, especially in the economic field, which contributes to integration processes and promotes the creation of various kinds of intergovernmental organizations. With this interdependence is closely tied the growth of global problems, and for its solving the concerted action by various states is required.

Another reason encouraging integration processes is the interest of “medium” and “small” states in increasing their international influence. For these countries, it’s easier to impact the international processes with combined efforts rather than by acting alone. With the example of European Union, it can be indicated, that if the founder members of European community were 3 “small” and 3 “big” states, from 1973 – 5 “small” and 4 “big”, in 1980s – respectively, 8 and 4, in 1995 – 11 “small” and 4 “big”, then among the new members, who joined EU in 2004, 9 countries were “small”, with the exception of Poland, which can be regarded as “medium” state. In 2007, and later in 2013 all three new members of EU were “small” states. The State, by joining the international organization formally loses number of functions, but simultaneously acquires additionally number of other functions, which is especially important for the “small” states.

At the end of this lecture, students will be familiar with the following topics:

Integration

Integration processes

European Union (EU)

Functionalism

Neofunctionalism

Federalism

Common Foreign Policy and Security Policy

World Government

Disintegration, Disintegration processes

North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Association of the South-East Asia Nations (ASEAN)

European Coal and Steel Community

European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)

European Economic Community

Common Market

European Community

Schengen Zone

The concept of democratization and democratic “wave”

Various authors indicate of democratization as a tendency of modern world development. At the same time, the concept itself in political science is mainly used in two meanings. The democratization, firstly, is understood as the indication of raising number of democratic states; secondly, strengthening and development of democratic institutions and processes in different countries. The latter has special value for states that are in the process of transition to building a democratic state i.e. democratic transition. G. O’Donnel and Ph. Schmitter distinguish the following steps in democratic transition: Liberalization, democratization and consolidation.

And yet, in world politics, in contrast to political science, the notion of “democratization” is more often used in the first sense, as an increase in the number of democratic states. On more understanding of the democratization of the modern world is possible – as an expansion of the circle of participants in international cooperation. However, this approach is not yet well established in world politics.

After the end of this lecture, students will receive the knowledge on the following topics:

Democratization

Democratic Transition

Democratization “waves”

Non Liberal Democracies

Hybrid Regimes

Imitational Democracies

Democratic Peace Theory

Main principles of Human Rights

Main obstacle on the way of democracy enlargement and ways for the problem`s resolution

The main approaches to understanding security

Security Problems are classical in the Westphalian political system of the world. The state from the moment of the emergence cared for maintaining sovereignty, i.e. the national security was understood initially first of all as prevention of external aggression. In modern conditions this concept includes also the questions connected with danger of internal destabilization. Due to growth of interdependence of the world the problem receives further development within regional security and the international security.

All three terms characterize the state and Interstate relations. They are more often used in realistic and neo-realistic concepts.

At the same time as a starting point served situation according to which the power of the state necessary for realization of national interests and influence on the international situation was defined first of all on the basis of its military force, or, by analogy with computer terminology, on base of “hard power”, but not on the basis of culture, strength of the authority on the world scene and some type of “soft power”. As a result, the problem of military strengths was central in the international relations from both, practical and the research point of view.

The situation has changed at the end of the XX century. Experts in the field of economy and finance and also environment were one of the first who have paid attention to nonmilitary threats to security. The first group have started talking about an economic component of safety, the second that ecological disruption by pollution poses a huge threat to mankind on the national and global level. However, a controversy was caused by fact, in which cases the ecological problems are caused by human`s activity and when the objective reasons. Also, how this problem can be resolved.

Revolution in the field of new technologies became other factor which has influenced reconsideration of security concerns. As a result, non-state actors were capable to play a huge role in the field of safety which they didn't have earlier. This has brought to the understanding that it isn't enough to build concepts of security, to be based on the fact, that the threat can proceed only from other state or group of states. With special evidence it was shown by events of September 11, 2001, when the planes skyjacked by terrorists crashed into buildings of the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, explosions of the train in Madrid and London, etc. In spite of the fact that the defeat targets have remained the same, as well as were assumed by strategic doctrines of the leading states: the large cities, the central ministries, departments - the source of threats was extremely amorphous and uncertain.

At the end of the XX century many researchers including adhering to realistic views, for whom the emphasis on military aspects and interstate relations is characterized, have begun to speak about such factors in ensuring national security as education, development of the modern technologies, growth of economic power, drug trafficking, AIDS, etc. Within a neo-realism one of the most important works within such direction represented a research B. Buzan "People, states, fear" which has appeared in 1983 and where the limitations of traditional understanding of security are shown (Buzan, 1983). Except this author, the so-called "broad" definition of security concerns including not only military aspects, is connected with the names of a number of the European researchers, in particular U. Beck (Beck, 1998). Along with work B. Buzan in the same year in the journal “International Security” the article of the American researcher R. Ullman was published. The author wrote that the emphasis on military security problems leads to the fact that other threats are overlooked, including the threats, which are coming from the inside of the state (Lebedeva, 2007).

In the modern period, the discussions concerning a ratio of military-political factors, from the one hand, and social and economic, ecological, information and technological from another continue. Supporters of “wide” approach to security problems point to the amplifying role of economic and other factors. Their opponents object: in this case a security problem “is blurring” by many other aspects which are existed in international relations and world politics.

One more important question in the theoretical plan - a ratio of regional, international and global security. The last term sometimes is used to emphasize that a security concern has not only internal, but the interstate measurement. Here also is no unambiguous decision.

In this regard the problems about the ways of the harmonization of the national interests of the states – the content of the concept of the regional, international and global security cannot be limited only by the taking into account the national interests of the states. The coincidence of the national interests of the group of the states cause different types of regional and international unions, which are guided by the determined views (concepts) about the ways of the harmonization and protecting their group interests as a balance between each other, also in the relations with the third countries.

In the connection with it, all those questions of the International and regional security, obviously, are closely connected with the problems of International Organizations. Under modern conditions among the institutes, which are engaged in the providing the international security, first of all should be pointed out about United Nations. The significant role in security issues play also several regional institutions, especially in Europe, where they have rather accurate functions and responsibilities. First of all, OSCE, NATO. The main problems which are intensively discussed now, reforming of the UN, with that to make its activity in the field of providing security and peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding more effective and also to fix the place and a role of NATO in the European structures related to defense and security, taking into account the fact that this organization has been formed in the years of the Cold War with definite purposes and tasks.

Problems of Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking

At the end of the XX century, security concern goes more and more beyond interstate cooperation and disarmament issues. With the development of globalization process organized crime sharply became more actual topic. According to several estimations, since 1980th years the number of criminal acts, having been carried out within the organized crime, increases for 5% annually.

Members of organized criminal groups gain huge income. By estimates, which were presented in 1999 the total amount of so-called dirty money in the world was from 500 to 1500 billion dollars per year, which was equal to the 5% of the world GDP during this period.

One of the fields of activity of organized crime is caused by the fact that a number of goods are not taxed. Illegal transfer of these goods from one country to another brings the considerable revenue to the members of the groups of the organized crime. Other area of organized crime is connected with illegal arms supplies, illegal activity in the conflict zones, including recruitment of mercenaries, etc. Processes of privatization in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe have also drawn attention.

This problem already holds the specific place because of the scales, but has received an additional boost in connection with globalization and the openness of borders generated by it. Considerable streams of drugs go via post-soviet space from Asia, the USA faces the same problem from Colombia and some other countries Latin America. In general drug trafficking within second decade of XXI Century, by different estimates, has increased in tens of times, giving more than 500% of profit.

Fight against drugs distribution becomes one of global problems of the contemporary period. At the same time, their main production is arranged in the countries with badly developed economy and a set of the internal conflicts, with the military and quasi-military regime. The chief suppliers of opium poppy on the market today are Afghanistan and Burma today. By the estimates given by J. Goldstein, production of opium from 1998 to 1999 has increased in Afghanistan twice and has made three quarters of the world production. More and more the synthetic drugs which aren't demanding vegetable raw materials are widely adopted.

Problems of Terrorism in the modern World

The general point of view on terrorism as a rare and relatively remote threat was challenged by the tragic events of September 11, 2001. The terrible incidents, visited on the World trade Center, the Pentagon, and the crash victims in Pennsylvania forced the International Community to confront a grim new reality: Terrorist Organizations had an appropriate resources for the executing catastrophic attacks almost in each region of the World, even without an arsenal of sophisticated weapons.

9/11 became the first turning point for the whole world to focus on the issues of national as well international security.

As for the most recent developments show terrorism is assumed to be the most significant “enemy” of the 21-st century.

US State Department listed 44 terrorist organizations in 2008 (Joshua S. Goldstein. Jon C. Pevehouse. 2010).

Today`s Boko Haram, Tamil Tigers, Al-Qaeda, Hezbollah play very significant roles even in deciding the scope of foreign policy of leading superpowers.

It is necessary to add, about the existence of states on the World political map, that funds and supports different terrorist groups and illegal armed formations in the different regions of the World. United Nations, by the Resolution 39/159 “Inadmissibility of the policy of State terrorism and any actions by States aimed at undermining the socio-political system in other sovereign States”, condemns any actions of state-terrorism.

In general, Terrorism represents one of the most serious problems which not only has become aggravated at the end of 20-th and the beginning of the 21st century, but also it has appeared, in fact, among the main threats to security especially in its new forms, which have a number of new direction. It is caused, first of all, by the level of technological development and possibilities to impact on the world, therefore large-scale terrorist attacks can be conducted by small group of people or even by one person. Secondly, in the modern world the potential range of the terrorist organizations (national and cultural symbols, government buildings, places of a big congestion of people, etc.) and also types of weapon which can be used are various. The third, modern terrorists, or, by U. Lakyyuer's definition, terrorists of an era of postmodern, together with other criminal structures look for allies in public institutions that leads to corruption. The considerable sums are spent for bribery of officials and also the intelligence agencies, which designed to prevent illegal activity.

Terrorism by itself is not the new phenomenon. It is known since Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In the 19th century terrorism is connected with anarchical and also some nationalist organizations. By estimates of a number of authors, for example R. Kidder, terrorism becomes really international problem since 1960th years. In the 1970-1980th years the world has faced the surge in terrorist operations in Europe.

Despite centuries-old existence of a terrorism phenomenon, in the theoretical plan this problem quite difficult gives in to definition. The matter is that the same actions are considered by the same time by the different parties as terrorism from one side and freedom fighting from the other side. For this reason the attempts to define terrorism within the UN (and various criteria were offered by the USA, Great Britain, other countries) in general have not been crowned with success.

However, the fact that, first, it is politically motivated violent acts or their threat is undoubtedly important in terrorism definition, secondly, they are directed against civilians, and not just directly concerning the power. Concerning them, terrorist attacks for the purpose of realization of these or those political goals are conducted. Terrorism is substantially focused on achievement of psychological effect. Therefore, terrorists are, as a rule, interested in that their acts have found as much as possible extended coverage in mass media. The psychological effect has multiple focus, including drawing attention to the organization and its purposes, demonstration of opportunities, population or its certain groups, etc.

Other important feature when determining terrorism is in what is carried out by the non-state actors. Therefore, any armed actions, let unjustified and illegal (for example, capture by Iraq of Kuwait in the early nineties), don't get under terrorism definitions. At the same time the state can give anyway, support to the terrorist organizations (including financial or in the form of granting the territory for the terrorist bases, refusal of delivering terrorists to the other states, approvals of their actions, etc.). In this regard there has appeared a term "State Terrorism". USA, for example, call even the states which, according to them, get to this category. However, the state in such cases practically never takes the responsibility for recognition in the assistance to terrorism and to prove the state`s participation in the terrorist act is quite difficult.

The period of the beginning of the 21st century when the political structure of the world is in process of cardinal changes, represents itself the convenient base for the terrorism development. In modern conditions of globalization terrorists often act out of national borders. Therefore, it is being discussed about international terrorism, or transnational terrorism (that is more precise), which means the using of the territory or involvement of the citizens to the terrorist actions in more than one country. And despite the fact that it is quite difficult to outline borders between internal and international terrorism as practically all rather large terrorist organizations have links outside national borders, nevertheless feature of the first is the fact that the challenge is thrown down not to the concrete state or group of the states, but to the model of development of the world. Construction transnational terrorist structures to the network principle and finding the structural division in many states of the world strongly complicates fight against this threat.

Terrorist actions not seldom are included into an arsenal of the means of fighting by various ethnic, religious and other groups, factually being as a form of the political struggle and favorable business. Among the different terrorist groups good connections, including military and commercial are established. Some interact with the criminal structures, in particular, which are connected with drug business. Incomes from sale of drugs quite often goes for financing of acts of terrorism.

Special concern is caused by a possibility of access by the terrorist organizations to the modern types of weapon and weapons of mass destruction. So, in March, 1995, the Japanese religious sect Aum Shinrikyo has conducted a terrorist attack with the using of nervously-paralytic gas in the subway, as a result of which 10 people have been killed and about 5000 have been forced to ask for medical care. However, one of the biggest shocks was the actions of terrorists on September 11, 2001, when in USA several planes, which were captured by terrorist have been directed to the buildings of the World Trade Center in New York and also to the Pentagon. One more plane has been crashed with passengers, but in this case at least it was succeeded to avoid the much bigger victims. Results of the attack were comparable with destructive effect during the missile attack.

This act of terrorism has raised many security issues differently. Earlier many estimates have brought out of calculation of time of flight of ballistic missiles. Now this indicator is insufficient. The second moment is connected with definition of a source of aggression. If before in strategic concepts one or several states main threats were coming from the foreign states, then today to the list of potential attackers are included terrorist groups. The international terrorists, on the one hand, have bases, as a rule, in various countries, with another directly and openly aren't connected with government institutions (if to exclude a possibility of creation of corruption). As it was noted, terrorist act as independent actors on the world scene. At last, threats are extremely certain: poisoning of water of the megalopolis or the gas attack in the subway can be done by civilian airliners, tomorrow. At last, the last major moment connected with lessons on September 11, 2001, and the governments of the certain countries (even such powerful as the USA) and the international community in general were not ready to adequate answers. The tragic events in Beslan in September 1, 2004, connected with taking of hostages in the school, have once again confirmed new parameters of modern threats: surprise (several minutes are absent even for preparation for reflection of the attacks), plurality and heterogeneity of terrorist acts and also means of attack.

Other sphere of modern terrorism - cyberterrorism, including information attack, connected with a possibility of destabilization of work of computer systems and networks. Considering a role of such systems in the modern world, it is easy to imagine consequences of the large failures in work of transport, communication, power supply, governmental and municipal structures - so-called "Critical infrastructures” of the modern society. The feature of cyberterrorism consists the fact, that the threat of information terrorism is realized quite well by different international actors. By estimations of one of computer magazines (information Week), viruses and actions of hackers cost to large business in only in one 2000 about 1,6 billion dollars. In May of the same year in Paris the meeting at the level of computer terrorism experts has taken place. They expressed opinions that the threat of cyberterrorism constitutes for mankind danger, comparable with nuclear, chemical, bacteriological wars.

All this also induces the states to coordinate the actions in fight against terrorism. A number of the international agreements, in particular, on providing safe civil avia transportation and shipping (The international conventions 1963, 1970, 1988) have been adopted, for example; on fight against taking of hostages (1979); to protection of nuclear materials (1980). The international terrorism has received condemnation in 1985 on the UN General Assembly where the relevant Resolution has been adopted. The question of fight against terrorism was repeatedly raised at meetings of heads of states, including members of the G7.

Special divisions on fight against terrorism exist in many countries. Coordination of national efforts is on the practical level carried out by different international institutes, including the Interpol.

Features of conflict at the end of the XX - Beginning of the XXI century

It is no exaggeration to say that conflicts are as old as the world. They were before the signing of the Westphalian peace treaty - the time taken for the birth point of the system of national States. Conflict situations and disputes will not disappear in the future, because, according to the aphoristic statement of one of the researchers R. Lee, a society without conflicts is a dead society. Moreover, many authors, particularly L. Coser, emphasize that the contradictions that underline conflicts, have a number of positive functions: attract attention to the problem, forced to seek the ways out of the situation, warning of stagnation - and thereby contribute to global development. Indeed, Conflicts are unlikely to be avoided at all. It is another matter in what form they should be resolved - through dialogue and search for mutually acceptable solutions or armed confrontation. Speaking about the conflicts of the late XX-early XXI century, we should focus on two important issues that are not only theoretical but also practical. Whether the changed nature of conflicts? How can armed forms of conflict be prevented and regulated under modern conditions? The answers to these questions are directly related to the definition of the character of the modern political system and the possibility of its impact. Immediately after the end of the cold war, there were feelings that the world was on the threshold of a conflict - free era of existence. In academic circles, this position was most clearly expressed By F. Fukuyama, when he declared the end of the history (Fukuyama, 1989). This position was sufficiently strongly supported by the official community, including the United States, despite the fact Republican party was in power at the beginning of 1990-ies, as it is known, this party was less likely, compared to Democrats, to share the neo-liberal views.

Despite the fact, that after the end of the confrontation between the two systems and the ending of "cold war", the number of conflicts has somehow decreased. For example, through negotiations became possible to find a solution of conflicts in South-east Asia (Cambodia), in Africa (Namibia, Angola), Latin America (Nicaragua, El Salvador) etc. Nevertheless, regional and local conflicts in the beginning of the XXI century continue to threaten the international security and democratization. In addition, many of them have the ability to generate a kind of terrorist waves and spread them sometimes far beyond the conflict zones. Shortly we can assume, that without understanding the nature of the conflict, it is impossible to fully understand how the protection of the fundamental principles of human rights on the global level should be provided.

With regard to the issue - about the number of conflicts, in this case if we trust to the most authoritative data of the special institute for the study of conflict, which is located in Heidelberg (Germany), in 2013 the total number of conflicts in the different Regions of the World reached 414!

Two World Wars, about 200 wars, local armed conflicts, terror, armed fighting for the power, all those types of conflicts, killed within the previous Century about 300 million people.

As a result of the conflicts, it was violated the human rights of more than 20 million people, when in the beginning of the XXI Century, some 5,8 million people were displaced within their own countries and 14,8 million people had become refugees by fleering across international borders.

Failed State

A failed state is a political body that has disintegrated to a point where basic conditions and responsibilities of a sovereign government no longer function properly (see also fragile state and state collapse). A state can also fail if the government loses its legitimacy even if it is performing its functions properly. For a stable state it is necessary for the government to enjoy both effectiveness and legitimacy. Likewise, when a nation weakens and its standard of living declines, it introduces the possibility of total governmental collapse. The Fund for Peace characterizes a failed state as having the following characteristics:

· Loss of control of its territory, or of the monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force therein

· Erosion of legitimate authority to make collective decisions

· Inability to provide public services

· Inability to interact with other states as a full member of the international community

Common characteristics of a failing state include a central government so weak or ineffective that it has an inability to raise taxes or other support, and has little practical control over much of its territory and hence there is a non-provision of public services. When this happens, widespread corruption and criminality, the intervention of state and non-state actors, the appearance of refugees and the involuntary movement of populations, sharp economic decline, and foreign military intervention can occur (Fund for peace, 2015).

Metrics have been developed to describe the level of governance of states. The precise level of government control required to avoid being considered a failed state varies considerably amongst authorities. Furthermore, the declaration that a state has "failed" is generally controversial and, when made authoritatively, may carry significant geopolitical consequences.

Role of Hybrid War in World Politics

Nowadays, hybrid war and its role in world politics is very important and actual issue. In this subchapter, there will be discussed what hybrid war means in general, how it was formed and used throughout the time, its effectiveness, hybrid warfare as a new type of global competition, also hybrid war as an old concept, which acquired new techniques during the time.

Definition of Hybrid War

While talking about the role of hybrid war in world politics, it is significant to understand what hybrid war means in general. Hybrid War is a military strategy which employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare and cyber warfare with other influencing methods, such as fake news, violation the conducting diplomatic methods and foreign electoral intervention. By combining kinetic operations with subversive efforts, the aggressor intends to avoid attribution or retribution. Hybrid warfare can be used to describe the flexible and complex dynamics of the battle space requiring a highly adaptable and resilient response. There are a variety of terms used to refer to the hybrid war concept: hybrid war, hybrid threats, hybrid influencing or hybrid adversary (as well as non-linear war, non-traditional war or special war). It should be mentioned that there is no universally accepted definition of hybrid warfare which leads to some debate whether the term is useful at all. Some argue that the term is too abstract and only the latest term to refer to irregular methods to counter a conventionally superior force. The abstractness of the term means that it is often used as a catch all term for all non-linear threats.

International Drug Trade

The illegal drug trade represents the global black market consisting of production, transportation, distribution, packaging, and sale of illegal psychoactive substances. Illegal drug trade usually is followed by other types of brutality and criminal activities, particularly: hundreds of drug related murders, kidnappings and other violent crime take place in the highly volatile U.S-Mexico border wh

ere there is significant drug presence.

The illicit drugs trade is one of the most influential global illegal activities, cost of which prevails $350 billion. According to UN research, about 200 million people (4.8% of the world’s population aged 15-64) use illegal drugs annually with 25 million being classed as problematic users (0.6%).

Drug Business

One of the serious problems of modernity is the illicit drug trade, which has become ubiquitous, and drug addiction has become a real national disaster for many countries.

Drug addiction is more of a disease than a crime, but it is an illness that is very dangerous to society, especially since a person with a drug addiction can easily become a criminal. Unlike drug use, drug trafficking is the most serious crime and the law of any country severely punishes the drug dealer. In a number of countries, this crime carries the death penalty. Nevertheless, drug trafficking is one of the most common crimes, and the fight against international drug trafficking is a common concern around the world.

There are several major centers of drug production in the world: the main producers of heroin are Afghanistan and Pakistan (so-called Golden Crescent) and Burma, Thailand and Laos (Golden Triangle). Hashish and marijuana are mainly produced in Africa and Mexico, while cocaine is produced in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.

The production of drugs and their illegal transportation are controlled by international criminal groups. Some of these organizations are, in fact, state within a state. Particularly dangerous are the states that, due to their geographical location, may play the role of transit countries in the world illicit drug trade.

THE PROBLEM OF NORTH-SOUTH RELATIONS,

The concepts of "rich north-poor south" are widely used today to refer to the phenomenon, which consists in a significant polarization of the world along with the axis "North-south”. As a result, in the countries located in the northern hemisphere (developed states), the overall socio-economic level of life is significantly higher than in the developing countries in the southern hemisphere. Sometimes, although recently much less frequently, the countries in the “South” are much more often called "countries of the third world". This term was originally disseminated in the framework of neo-Marxism in the years of the Cold War, when the world was divided on the capitalist, socialist and “other” countries.

About 20% of the world's population lives in the prosperous countries of the northern hemisphere. According to data provided by the United Nations Development Program for 1998, they consume about 90% of all goods produced on the Earth. They own approximately 85% of the entire park of cars. They account for almost 60% of the total generated energy. And the incomes of their citizens exceed those who live in developing countries for 60 times or more.

At the same time, the growth of the population is observed in developing countries (here lives 85% of those who born in 1960 and later). According to the World Bank, in such regions as Africa and the Middle East, the annual population growth is about 3%. The high tempo of population growth proposes the solution of such problems, as education, health, creation of new working places. However, instead of economic growth and improvement in the social sphere there is a decline in these areas.

Criminal problems. Geography of crime

Among the global social problems, criminal problems have become extremely actual in the recent years. In the era of globalization, the situation has been somehow changed. Together with the domestic criminal problems, most significant become the problems of international organized crime, which acquired a special severity. The global network of criminal organizations has been formed, thus, the internationalization of the criminality took place. This threat turned out to be so serious that the fight against it required a united effort from all over the world.

General features of crime geography

The types of premeditated crime that fall under the criminal offense can be divided into three main groups: violent crimes, misappropriation of property and disturbance of public order.

Some types of violent crime (sabotage, terrorism) are more a political problem. Murder, intentional bodily harm, physical assault, rape, kidnapping, rape, etc. are considered pure criminal offenses.

Murder statistics is characterized by a certain regularity. The homicide rate is particularly high in Latin American (especially the Caribbean) countries. In particular, in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia, Venezuela and Jamaica, there are more than 40 murders per 100 thousand inhabitants per year. South Africa also has a high percentage of homicides (in South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho this figure exceeds 30). Russia ranks first among the European countries (19.8), while in Georgia this figure is three times lower than in Russia (6.2). Among the developed countries, the highest number of murders occurs in the United States (5,9), which is explained by the liberal legislation related the purchase of weapons. In most developed European countries, the number of murders is less than one in every 100,000 people. The lowest rates are fixed in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Gulf Arab states (less than 0.5).

The most common types of property theft are theft, robbery, car theft, misappropriation of property, and so on. These types of crime are widespread, but especially common in the former socialist countries, as well as in a significant part of developing countries. Poverty is the main cause of theft, but in some countries it is also due to historical and cultural factors. There are people who did not consider theft to be an incitement, but even a manliness. Changing this mentality was not so easy. In the Soviet Union, the so-called notion of a "thief in law" has even become a role model in society.

Violation of public order is relatively less of a criminal offense and more often involves administrative liability. However, mass unrest and paralysis of normal life have dire consequences and are not uncommon in conditions of unstable political regimes and backward economies. The incidence of public disorder is an indicator of low daily and legal culture. In developing and former Soviet countries, less serious disturbances of public order (e.g. neglect of traffic rules etc.) are commonplace and the population is less concerned with those factors. But it must be borne in mind that disturbing public order creates more serious criminal offenses and is as serious a problem as violent crime and encroachment on property.

Criminality on the example of Slavery and Human Trafficking

Trafficking is one of the most serious international crimes that has become particularly acute in recent years and has become a global problem. Trafficking in human beings is an illegal international trade and can be considered a modern form of slavery. Trafficking is mainly manifested in the deportation of people to other countries, ostensibly with the promise of high-paying jobs and then their brutal exploitation. Victims of trafficking are especially common among young women, who are forced into prostitution instead of the promised jobs and receive almost no pay. The scale of child trafficking has also reached dangerous levels.

According to various data, up to one million people become victims of trafficking every year. The scale of trafficking has increased especially since the collapse of the communist system. In the former communist countries, the economic crisis has left millions unemployed, and the opening of borders has facilitated illegal migration. Favorable conditions have been created for trafficking, which is mainly manifested in the trafficking of women. Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania have emerged as major donors in this area. The recipients are the countries of Western Europe (Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece) and the Middle East (Turkey, Israel, Cyprus, the United Arab Emirates).

According to the U.S. Agency for International Development (as to 2011), from 700 000 to 4 million people are bought and sold each year as sex slaves, prostitutes, domestic workers, child labourers and child soldiers. Human trafficking is the third largest illicit global business after trafficking of drugs and the arms trade, that generates between $12 and $17 billion annually.

Chapter 21. Gender inequality and its consequences

For more than three decades, global conferences have highlighted the critical role of women and how it can be a human rights concern. A global consensus emerged about the need to improve the status of women if human rights and development were to progress. These conferences are signposts that increasingly depict gender equality and empowerment across political, social, and economic arenas as a fundamental rights.

Gender inequality is the idea that men and women are not equal and that gender affects an individual's living experience. These differences arise from distinctions in biology, psychology, and cultural norms. Some of these types of distinctions are empirically grounded while others appear to be socially constructed. Studies show the different lived experience of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political affiliations. Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures.

Chapter 22. Money laundering

Money laundering is the illegal process of concealing the origins of money obtained illegally by passing it through a complex sequence of banking transfers or commercial transactions. The overall scheme of this process returns the "clean" money to the launderer in an obscure and indirect way (Oxford English Dictionary, 2020).

One problem of criminal activities is accounting for the proceeds without raising the suspicion of law enforcement agencies. Considerable time and effort may be put into strategies that enable the safe use of those proceeds without raisin

g unwanted suspicion. Implementing such strategies is generally called money laundering. After money has been laundered, it can be used for legitimate purposes.

Money laundering is the conversion or transfer of property; the concealment or disguising of the nature of the proceeds; the acquisition, possession or use of property, knowing that these are derived from criminal activity; or participating in or assisting the movement of funds to make the proceeds appear legitimate.

Money obtained from certain crimes, such as extortion, insider trading, drug trafficking, and illegal gambling is "dirty" and needs to be "cleaned" to appear to have been derived from legal activities, so that banks and other financial institutions will deal with it without suspicion. Money can be laundered by many methods that vary in complexity and sophistication.

Money laundering typically involves three steps: The first involves introducing cash into the financial system by some means ("placement"); the second involves carrying out complex financial transactions to camouflage the illegal source of the cash ("layering"); and finally, acquiring wealth generated from the transactions of the illicit funds ("integration"). Some of these steps may be omitted, depending upon the circumstances. For example, non-cash proceeds that are already in the financial system would not need to be placed (Reuter, 2004).

According to the United States Treasury Department:

Money laundering is the process of making illegally-gained proceeds (i.e., "dirty money") appear legal (i.e., "clean"). Typically, it involves three steps: placement, layering, and integration. First, the illegitimate funds are furtively introduced into the legitimate financial system. Then, the money is moved around to create confusion, sometimes by wiring or transferring through numerous accounts. Finally, it is integrated into the financial system through additional transactions until the "dirty money" appears "clean" (United States Department of the Treasury, 2015).

Many jurisdictions have set up sophisticated financial and other monitoring systems to enable law enforcement agencies to detect suspicious transactions or activities, and many have set up international cooperative arrangements to assist each other in these endeavors. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) estimates that the amount of money laundered globally in one year is "2–5% of global GDP, or $800bn – $2tn in current US dollars" (UNODC, 2020).

In a number of legal and regulatory systems, the term "money laundering" has become conflated with other forms of financial and business crime, and is sometimes used more generally to include misuse of the financial system (involving things such as securities, digital currencies, credit cards, and traditional currency), including terrorism financing and evasion of international sanctions (Lin, 2016). Most anti-money laundering laws openly conflate money laundering (which is concerned with the source of funds) with terrorism financing (which is concerned with the destination of funds) when regulating the financial system (Counter Terrorism Financing Act, 2016).

Some countries render obfuscation of money sources as constituting money laundering, whether intentional or by merely using financial systems or services that do not identify or track sources or destinations. Other countries define money laundering in such a way as to include money from activity that would have been a crime in that country, even if the activity was legal where the conduct occurred (GTDT, 2017).

Chapter 23. Corruption

Corruption is a form of dishonesty or criminal offense undertaken by a person or organization entrusted with a position of authority, to acquire illicit benefit or abuse power for one's private gain. Corruption may include many activities including bribery and embezzlement, though it may also involve practices that are legal in many countries (World Bank, 2015). Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts in an official capacity for personal gain. Corruption is most commonplace in kleptocracies, oligarchies, narco-states and mafia states (Longdom, 2020).

Corruption can occur on different scales, corruption ranges from small favors between a small number of people (petty corruption) (Elliott, 2020), to corruption that affects the government on a large scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of society, including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime. Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degree and proportion. Individual nations each allocate domestic resources for the control and regulation of corruption and crime. Strategies to counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption. Additionally, global initiative like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal also has a target to substantially reduce corruption of all forms (Doss, 2020).

Definition and scales

Stephen D. Morris, a professor of politics, wrote that political corruption is the illegitimate use of public power to benefit a private interest (Morris, 1991). Economist Ian Senior defined corruption as an action to (a) secretly provide (b) a good or a service to a third party (c) so that he or she can influence certain actions which (d) benefit the corrupt, a third party, or both (e) in which the corrupt agent has authority (Senior, 2006). World Bank economist Daniel Kaufmann, extended the concept to include "legal corruption" in which power is abused within the confines of the law—as those with power often have the ability to make laws for their protection. The effect of corruption in infrastructure is to increase costs and construction time, lower the quality and decrease the benefit (Locatelli, 2017).

Corruption can occur on different scales. Corruption ranges from small favors between a small number of people (petty corruption) (Elliott, 1997), to corruption that affects the government on a large scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of society, including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime.

A number of indicators and tools have been developed which can measure different forms of corruption with increasing accuracy (Hamilton, 2017).

Chapter 24. Global Demographic Problems

International aspects of such problems, as the population growth, its aging in the economically and industrially developed countries, environmental pollution, are directly connected with the topics of globalization and interdependence of the modern world, and also with the economic activity of the humanity, inequality of the distribution and limitation of the natural resources in our planet. From its turn, the topics on population growth and environment are interconnected with each other. Population growth influence on environment, at least by two means: First, increasing the number of inhabitants on our planet causes the more consumption of more quantity of products, energy and other resources. Second, it is going on the increasing of economic activity, which is connected with the environmental pollution due to the due to exhaust of gases, air pollution, water resources etc.

The growth of the number of people on our planet, ecological problems effect on the climate changing, environment and influence not only on the separate countries or regions (despite the fact that some of them to have the pressure of one or another problems), but on the whole humanity in general. Due to this fact, they gained the name of global problems. It this regard it should be underlined, that all of them:

- Have gained the really planetary, universal character and concern the interests of the people from all states;

- Threaten to the humanity by the serious regress in the further development of the productive forces, under the conditions of the life itself;

- There are in need of urgent decisions and actions for the overcoming and prevention of the dangerous consequences and threats to the life support and security of the citizens;

- Require the collective efforts and actions from the all states, whole world community.”

At the same time, different countries and regions by the different level are under the influence of the global problems and own the various means for their resolution. From here there are the different approaches to them.

What are the perspectives of the development of global problems, among of them one of the leading place have the problems of demography and ecology? How they threaten to the humanity? Will the demographic and ecological problems be the sources for new conflicts? Or, possible or not, that those threats are exaggerated?

Chapter 25. Migration – one of the most important global problems

Migration is one of the most important global, and at the same time, complex problem, because it represents not only demographical, but also serious social, economic and political problem and creates many difficulties in many countries of the world. As it is known, there are two types of migration: Internal and external.

Despite of the existence the significant problems in case of internal migration, it is anyway the problems of separate countries and their resolution should be regulated by the conducting the concrete policy of the presented state (adoption of the concrete legislation etc.). Thus, there are much more problems during the external or international (especially illegal) migration, which has already gained the global character and the fighting against illegal one requires the international efforts.

In the contemporary period, there are three main centers of the international migrant’s concentration: Western Europe, North America and Arabic states of the Persian Gulf.

Chapter 25. Environmental Problems of the Modern World

Environmental resources such as water and air have always been necessary conditions for human life and human activities. Within the duration of human history, the environment did not represent a problem for mankind and its sustainable development. There were opinions that the environment and the natural resources satisfied the needs of the people, without causing damage to the next generations.

In the second half of the 20th century, the topic of environmental protection has entered to the political agenda, including political aspects, because humanity’s economic activities have caused environmental pollution to a level that threatens various species and even the ecosystem as a whole. The urgency of the problems, research in the field of ecology and the popularization of knowledge, as well as the active involvement of international nongovernmental organizations and movements in the field of ecology have resulted the more widespread consideration of ecological problems.

Problems of global warming

Global warming is expected to have far-reaching, long-lasting and, in many cases, devastating consequences for planet Earth.

Global warming, the gradual heating of Earth's surface, oceans and atmosphere, is caused by human activity, primarily the burning of fossil fuels that pump carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Despite political controversy about climate change, a major report released Sept. 27, 2013, by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated that scientists are more certain than ever of the link between human activities and global warming. More than 197 international scientific organizations agree that global warming is real and has been caused by human action.

The problem of Water consumption in the Contemporary World Politics

At the end of XX and beginning of the XXI century more and more attention is paid to the global problems of the water resources. This global problem is interrelated with the other global problems – political, ecologic and demographic. From one side, pollution of the environment causes the fact, that the sources of the drinking water are becoming useless for the consumption. From the other side, population growth in our planet is the reason of the emerging and strengthening its deficit.

The whole stock of the water of our planet is about 1,4 Billion km3. But, its biggest part is salted. Particularly, water occupies 70% of the surface of our planet, but almost entire part is coming to the salt – water - 97.5%. In this case, the share of the fresh water among of the all available water resources is 2,5 %. It is concentrated mainly in the glaciers and therefore, it is predominantly inaccessible. Thus, only 1% of the available water resources of the planet is accessible for the direct use by the mankind.

At the same time specialist consider possible the consumption not only fresh, but even salted marine water. And they solve this problem by the transferring the marine water to the fresh water, however, it is rather expensive and accessible only for the economically developed states.

In this case, for a period of centuries, the volume of accessible (available) water resources in the world, practically have not been changed toward their increasing.

Raw material problems on the global level

One of the serious problems of modernity is the maximum provision of humanity with raw materials. This problem has always existed, but it has acquired global significance in recent decades, when an unprecedented population growth and increasing production capacity has raised the raw material problem with all its severity.

Global raw material problems are associated with very rapid, often spontaneous growth in demand for raw materials (both energy and metallic and non-metallic minerals). Suffice it to say that in the last half century the world has extracted and used more raw materials than in the entire history of mankind. At the same time, this process is irreversible in nature, and the supply of raw materials is steadily declining, which will pose an unresolved dilemma in the future.

The raw material crisis in recent decades has shown everyone, that it is impossible to continue the growth of raw material consumption at such a pace and it is necessary to find a solution.

The raw material crisis is exacerbated by the fact that along with the reduction of raw material stocks, the mining-geological conditions of the deposits are deteriorating and, consequently, extraction is becoming more expensive.

In addition, the mining industry is associated with a whole range of environmental problems. Open source mining reduces the cost, but leads to land degradation and disruption. Pollution of the atmosphere, water and soil is also an important problem. In recent years, the use of high-sulfur oil and coal has been increasingly avoided, and some countries (where the so-called acid rain is being actively fought) have banned the consumption of such raw materials altogether. All this creates new difficulties in providing with raw materials.

Chapter 27. Health Protection Problems

The health problem is one of the oldest and global social problems. Low level of medical development, poor sanitary conditions, economic and socio-cultural backwardness were the reasons that determined the high mortality rate and the prevalence of diseases. In recent decades, the socio-economic situation and sanitary-hygienic conditions in the world as a whole have significantly improved, and great progress has been made in the development of medicine. Consequently, some successes will undoubtedly be observed. The mortality rate has decreased, the average life expectancy has increased, and the incidence of a number of diseases has been reduced to a minimum. Nevertheless, in many regions of the world, some significant progress in this direction has not yet been observed, while in other regions, where there has been apparent progress and many diseases have been virtually eliminated, there has been a growing trend towards other diseases. Thus, the health problem remains an extremely serious, global problem.

Chapter 28. Economic component of the world politics

Important approaches to World Political Economy

Economics and politics have always been closely related. This relationship reflects scientific discipline-international political economy, (IPE) which deals with such major areas as international trade and the international financial system. Some authors, in particular J. Goldstein, singled out the activities of transnational corporations as a separate field of IPE (Goldstein, 2011).

The special attention to the economic factor in the world politics was paid in the second half of the 20th century. One of the incentives here was the energy crisis of the 1970s, after which it was discovered that the so-called high-level policy, which was determined by military might, proved to be largely powerless before the economy, or a low-level policy. Its role was also played by the defeat of the United States in the Vietnam War and USSR in the Afghan war, which clearly demonstrated that military power is far from always able to solve all problems. But there were also internal factors. In democracies, the dependence between the economic successes of the country and the popularity of the government was increasingly evident. In its turn, the economy became increasingly conditioned by international factors due to the increasing interdependence of the world.

The first works showing the continuity of politics and economy in the new conditions of an interdependent and globalizing world appeared in the very beginning of the 1970-es. Those researches were published by S. Strange, R. Keohane and J. Nye and a number of other authors. A significant role in the development of the IPE was played the books of R. Gilpin, in particular “The Political Economy of International Relations“, which was published, however, somewhat later, in 1987 and second edition in 2001 (Gilpin, 2001). As a whole, from the 1970s international political economy begins its intensive development.

Like any other, there are theoretical schools and approaches in this area. Among the main classical approaches, two most popular “mercantilism" or state-centered approach and trade, or economic, liberalism – commercial/economic liberalism are usually distinguished: mercantilism, or state-centered approach, and commercial or economic liberalism.

The term "mercantilism" was borrowed by the representatives of the IPE from the economic history and the history of economic thought, where it is often used to designate the doctrine, widespread in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, aimed at subordinating the economic sphere to the political interests of the state. Representatives of the presented direction are based on the fact, that economy should serve to politics and strengthen the power of the state. The great geographical discoveries and the subsequent seizure of new territories by European states stimulated its development. The accumulation of wealth in the form of precious metals becomes a symbol of state power. In XVIII century the development of mercantilism become reality, which was due to the successes of Great Britain, where this economic theory was especially developed (McCusker, 2001).

Representatives of mercantilism share the views of political realists about the fact that State must protect its interests, including economic. According to the views of the adherents of this school, economic policy should be guided by the development of the state. Moreover, the state receives from the economic activity the income, which allows to spend more finance resources on military needs. Authors adhering to this direction are in favor of state regulation of economic life, including active intervention in market processes.

In modern conditions, ideas of mercantilism obtain the form of neomercantilism, where the central role is played by the state in the politico-economic life, but the accumulation of gold reserves is not so significant, as it was earlier, because today the economic and other might of the country is not determined to the golden factors. The term "mercantilism," writes D. Caldwell, owes to its origin to two authors, D. Blake and R. Walters (Caldwell, 2012).

By noting the role of the economy as the most powerful factor of the state building, supporters of neomercantilism refer to a successful example of the post-war development of Germany and Japan. Both states, as they emphasize, were able to take the leading place in the modern world precisely because of the active role of the state in stimulating the economic development.

Neomercantilism emphasizes its attention in the economic differences, that exist between the states in the distribution of resources between them and obtained product. At the same time, it is especially emphasized the role of competition. The neo-mercantilists are guided by the development and maintenance of national production, the promotion of national goods to the world market. In the connection with it, representatives of the presented school gained the name of economic nationalists. It is interesting, that the carriers of the “economic nationalism” ideology are not only economists or political activists, but citizens themselves, who prefer to purchase the goods, which are produced in their native countries. At the same time, during the analysis of such behavior, it should be also taken into account the role of advertising companies.

For the development of national production, neo-mercantilists propose to focus on the policy of trade protectionism, which provides for the creation of special conditions for one or several national industries and protecting them from the influence of the market element. The reasons why the state uses the policy of trade protectionism are different. This may be the result of lobbying the relevant financial and industrial groups of concrete companies or other branches of the economy, the desire to develop their own new emerging industry, which is not yet competitive in the world market. The policy of protectionism involves the application of various economic methods. They are conditionally divided into two groups - tariffs, which are based on the use of the Customs Tariffs and non-tariff methods – nontariff barriers, implying the introduction of quotas, subsidies etc.

One of the simplest ways to protect the domestic market is the introduction of duties on imported goods. Usually they are set as a percentage of the value of imported products. As a result, the price of goods in the domestic market is increasing. Customs not only limit import, but they can also be a noticeable item of the state's income. Customs tariffs of national states usually provide for a complex structure of duties on different categories and types of goods. However, within the second half of the XX centuries, customs regulations lose their weight as a discriminatory barrier. In general, their size decreased from 45 to 3-4% for 1947-1998 (Chitadze, 2018).

As other instruments that promote the protection of national markets, quotas are used. Import quotas provide for how many types of goods in physical or value terms will be delivered to the country. In its extreme expression, the protection of the national market can be carried out by prohibiting the import of certain goods.

An example of the using of import quotas is the introduction in the US the quotas on the import of cars from Japan in the 1980s. At that time, their own automobile industry under the influence of imports from that country was experiencing great difficulties. As was noted by J. Goldstein, the negative point in the given case was that the quotas were limited by the number of imported cars, but not their cost. As a result, Japan quickly reoriented to the supply of expensive cars, which enabled their producers to keep the market in the US in almost full volume (Goldstein, 2011).

Import of products can be regulated by the state through various procedures related to the certification of goods. Especially it refers to food, pharmaceutical and other industries, from which the health and safety of consumers is depended.

Another method of protecting the domestic market is subsidizing the certain industries, for example, agricultural products.

There are also other methods of protecting the domestic market. In general, protectionism policy has positive and negative consequences for the economy. In particular, it can be analyzed the argument for supporters and opponents of the policy of trade protection. Its followers mention about supporting the domestic producers, which provides jobs places in the native branches of economy, the result of which is providing the social stability, and the reduction of import stimulates the growth of production and employment.

At the same time, the opposite arguments are also presented. For example, the protection of domestic producers is necessary precisely because of the lack of effectiveness of their labor. As a result, trade protectionism leads to a restriction of competition and, correspondingly, to the further inefficiency of domestic production.

The other most common argument of the trade protectionism represents the temporary protection of young industries. As they develop, protectionist measures are lifted. And here, there are counterarguments. Firstly, it is rather difficult to determine which sector is really perspective from the point of view of forming the new comparative advantages of the country. Secondly, protectionism with respect to young branches significantly reduces incentives to increase their efficiency, and due to it, the period of development can last on indefinite time. Finally, thirdly, in the case of young industries, the provision of subsidies or others advantages is more likely to be a more effective means of support than foreign trade protectionism.

As for the revenues having been received by the state, there are also disadvantages, particularly, the income to the budget is depended on volume of the import. This argument correlates with another problem – providing economic security. Thus, supporters of protectionism oppose the expansion of imports and, in this connection, against the need to introduce high tariffs, which is explained by the fact that otherwise the economy and the country's defense capacity will be depended on external factors.

However, under modern conditions the development, which is based solely on own resources turns out to be extremely complex and inefficient. In fact, such a policy leads to the creation of autarky. In such a way, for example went Albania. Since the 1960s, it has been oriented politically to China, and then, after breaking off with this country, Albania began to develop exclusively in isolation and in the early 1990s proved to be one of the poorest countries in Europe.

During the orientation only on own resources, the costs of manufactured goods are too high. As a result, the country is deprived of comparative advantage which it has when is included to the world economy. And they are formed due to the fact, that the state can always determine such goods, the production of which will be more profitable than other goods and services, taking into account all costs, including the costs of signing and executing contracts, or so-called transaction costs. The Specialization on the production the concrete products and services gives to the country the maximum profit within the foreign trade.

The use of non-tariff methods also has its limitations. For example, representatives of the different individual sectors of the national economy may rely on getting subsidies and do not rush with modernization. As a result, these branches of economy lag behind the world level.

Finally, trade protectionism, as a rule, causes a policy response of other states. They also try to protect their market and apply to similar methods toward the countries, that limit the import of their goods. This affects industries that are oriented on export of the state, which is using protectionist methods.

In general, as with any economic policy tool, the effectiveness of protectionist methods depends on how adequately they are used. A policy of protectionism can really promote the development of national industries, or, on the contrary, lead to their non-competitiveness and de facto degeneration.

Representatives of mercantilism pay a special attention to the balance of trade, which refers to the ratio of the value of total exports and imports. In the case when the first prevails over the second, the trade balance will be positive, and vice versa, when volume of import prevails over the export, the balance is negative. It somehow can be assumed, that according to the tradition that goes back to the era of mercantilism, the active trade balance is often determined unambiguously as a positive macroeconomic indicator, in fact, taken by itself, it does not always reflect the state of the economy as a whole. The trade balance is not the only indicator on which the state of the national economy is depended. For several years the state without any special negative consequences may have a negative trade balance but maintaining such a position for a long time can be dangerous.

In many ways, the opposite of mercantilism is economic liberalism. Its origins go back to the views of Adam Smith, John Steward Mill, and David Ricardo. It was according to A. Smith, who published his works at the end of the 18th century, the presented idea that the states differ by geographic location, climate conditions, natural resources, and this provides absolute advantages (Smith, 1776). Subsequently, D. Ricardo developed a theory of comparative advantages, according to which, even without absolute advantages, a country can gain a profit in foreign trade, specializing in the export of those goods whose production lags behind other countries is the least (Ricardo, 1817).

Modern liberalism regards private sector companies as the main participants in the economic sphere and sees the most effective role of the state so that it does not interfere too much in their economic behavior. Representatives of this approach underline the need to remove economic barriers conditioned by the state's policy, as they discourage free trade.

The supporters of liberalism, in contrast to the followers of mercantilism, emphasize not the competition among the states, but, on the contrary, their common interests, the need for cooperation in the economic sphere, the possibility of obtaining mutual benefits. In other words, liberals see the economic interaction in the world arena as a game with a non-zero sum. Mutually beneficial interaction is due to the comparative advantages that each country has. Thus, J. Goldstein gives an example of Denmark, which does not have energy and natural resources, with a population of 5 million people, while specializing in the production of butter of cubes "Lego" for children. This allows the country to survive and pay enough for the import of necessary goods (Goldstein, 2011). Interestingly, the proponents of economic liberalism explain the same example of the success of Japan and Germany after World War II, interpreted by mercantilists representatives through the prism of successful state policy, by the active involvement of these countries in the world economy and cooperation with other countries. Supporters of the liberal approach proceed also from the fact that it is possible to benefit from economic cooperation of the state through international institutions and organizations. Because of this, liberalism concentrates on the study of international institutions and regimes that enable states to achieve their goals.

A number of authors, considering the international political economy, are singled out as the third school-Marxism, which is based on the primacy of the economy in relation to politics and pays an attention not on the interaction among the states in the politico-economic field, but forms, where the confrontation between rich and poor is going on. This direction develops mainly in the framework of Neo Marxism deals mainly with the problems of the “North-South” relationship.

Finally, some researchers, in particular W. R. Duncan, B. Jankar-Webster, B. Switsky, pay the special attention to such a direction of international political economy as the theory of public choice. The essence of the approach is that it proceeds from the neoclassical economic theory of human behavior and emphasizes the role of internal political factors in the economic behavior of states on the world arena.

Chapter 29. Law and morality in world politics

The anarchic nature of international relations, initially determined by the Westphalia system, is governed by the International Law. American researcher Richard Falk noted that most of the legal norms that are used in international relations are based on moral principles (Falk, 1968). Thus, the invasion of one state to the territory of another (as, for example, in the case of the occupation of Kuwait by Iraq in the early 1990s, or occupation by Russia territories of Georgia and Ukraine accordingly in 2008 and 2014) is not only perceived as only contradiction to international law, but is also regarded by many states, as well as by other participants in international interaction as immoral. In this regard, it can be presented the following point of view. Both law and morality, are mandatory rules of behavior, that receive the form of the legal or moral duty and responsibilities for violating this obligation, reflecting the existing level of development of the international system and human civilization as a whole. And yet they are not are identical. It can be pointed out about two differences between the legal and moral norms, particularly:

- Legal norms are fixed in the appropriate documents, and at the same time, there are no written documents in case of moral norms;

- Moral and law are differ from each other by forms, meanings, methods of influence, but if the law takes into account the methods of pressure (sanctions, excluding from the membership of the concrete International Organizations etc.), there are no such types of mechanisms in case of morality.

In addition to these differences, it is necessary to specify one more. Despite the fact, that in the base of law and morality are main principles of values, morality is much more closely connected with them and represents a complex, sometimes contradictory creation, where the universal, ideological, religious and other values are interconnected, which can lead to the contradictions.

Chapter 30. EDUCATION AS A FACTOR IN THE WORLD POLITICS

The problem of education has not become yet such traditional theme during the consideration the different aspects of the World Politics, as economic and legal aspects. But, at the time, concrete person with its knowledge and skills is gradually becoming main active force in the world political development, accordingly, in the world politics. Like the fact, how since the end of the XX Century economic factor has become more actual than that of military one, today the development of the human potential is taking the leading place, prevailing before the other priorities and it is understandable, human being makes its contribution in the modern production, economy, culture, science. From this factor, how will be his/her educational level, is depended the future. In this regard, education is becoming more and more political factor of the modern world.

Chapter 31.

National Security, Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

National security, seen as one of the dimensions of security, together with collective, international security, can be provided by state bodies, being a constitutional responsibility, through the organized information collection system.

With regard to definition, there is no single universally accepted definition of "National Security". A typical dictionary definition, in this case from the Macmillan Dictionary, emphasizes the overall security of a nation and a nation states: "The protection or the safety of a country’s secrets and its citizens." (Macmillan Dictionary, 2010).

At the same time, National security represents the state of stability in the existence of a nation, of the certainly regarding independence, territorial integrity and people sovereignty, as formation for the development of national values and interests in the context of constitutional order in a state governed by the rule of law. The anticipation of some states of risk allows for their control, no matter they are rooted outside (military, economic, financial, media, diplomatic and other types of aggression) or inside, having direct or indirect consequences on citizen`s safety.

“National security interests are a key concept of foreign policy.”(Rondeli, 2003. P.74) In general, the national interests imply certain goals and to achieve them government should adopt appropriate policies (Wolfe`s, 1952).

National Security interests include such values and goals that it can agree on greatest sacrifice to achieved or maintain them. These values and goals usually are having very important place in the country's foreign policy principles and priorities. Therefore this values and goals are considered as sacred. Politicians call such an interest "vital" and the scientists - the basic, core values.

To realize and define national interests along with country’s political elite and economic culture, requires sophisticated diplomacy (Rondeli, 2003).

The national interest of big, strong country covers every aspect of life and every side of the world. For example, in XIX century, Great Britain's national interests are meant to keep a balance of power on the continent of Europe, to rule over the World Ocean, between metropolis and colonies, providing trade and unions.

Contrast to big countries, in national interests of small countries as a rule most important place are having: security issues, struggle for leadership in the region, to enter in "advantageous" coalition and to establish, strengthen beneficial foreign economic relations.

As for small countries, for their national security it’s very important to enter in appropriate coalition, to find strong partner country, as well to have stable, favorable economic ties. The issue of maintaining national identity and cultural values are the most “sensitive” components for small country’s national interests. Determination and realization of small countries national interests should include the least emotional, populist elements; it requires extremely realistic, sufficiently flexible (at the same time principal) policy formulation and implementation. (Rondeli, 2003).

Concept - "national security" - has a lot of enemies. Their arguments are as follows:

1) It is a powerful concept, but a symbol is too vague;

2) The problem is not national security but the international security. A person must live not in a safe country but in a safe world;

3) The national security is a state security and not human’s. Governments often use this content to inhibit opposition and domestic discontent. An individual's personal safety is often limited, because state takes extremely active care of its own safety;

4) This term is often used for distinct group or for individual’s narrow interests. (For example: authoritarian leaders, powerful agencies) (Rondeli, 2003).

There is no universal security, as every sovereign state has to take care of its own safety permanently. Because of this world get involved in "security dilemma". Therefore every country has to strengthen its military and military-economic opportunity in spite of its will, because state is not sure that nobody touches it.

Hence, one country's growing military potential makes its opponent or opponents to strengthen their military forces. It is clear that, even in the most powerful country there is no absolute guarantee and secured safety, because it’s opponent or opponents, in turn, are trying to improve their positions, so there is not end in this competition. The dilemma is that, in spite of it how much you strengthen your safety still it’s not secured (Rondeli, 2003). In general, sovereign state’s main demand and task is to ensure its own security.

In a world where the most important political factor is a power, a special attitude to security is clear.

Foreign Policy

Before the First World War, foreign policy was an activity of foreign ministries and ruling communities and it was surrounded by mystery, but devastating consequences of the war has changed this view. Disclosure of the secret part of the Munich Agreement, the Versailles Treaty, and the appearance of the Concert of Europe on international arena reinforced an idea, that foreign policy should be made public and it should not remain the only sphere of diplomacy, all kind of secret treaties should be prohibited and war should be declared as unacceptable instrument of foreign policy.

In manufacture of foreign policy state uses next methods:

1. Institutionalization of international humanitarian interests.

2. Blackmail (economic, geopolitical)

3. Aggression (military)

4. Twentieth century’s firstborn terrorism

5. Diplomacy

Any foreign policy which is determined by national interests implies: nations, state’s survival, its territorial integrity, political institutions and preservation of culture. As I already mentioned above, national interests are a key issues of foreign policy.

H. Morgenthau emphasizes that statesmen on international rink think and act in the interest of the state. It was in the past, it is in present, and it will be so in the future.

According to UNESCO resolution’s classification in 1948, study of foreign policy is scoped in International Studies research and is separated from the political science’s major issues. On the other hand, these studies focus as on international as well on domestic environment. Deborah Gerner describes that foreign policy is a “strange field” of political science- which deals with both, local and international political field, while James Rosenau say that foreign policy is a “connecting bridge” of international and domestic issues (Qochoradze, 2008).

Diplomacy

Problems of international relations, world politics - the best that happens on the international arena, have always been the focus of attention of politicians, journalists, analysts. The questions connected directly with the search for the means that allow to approach the implementation of foreign policy decisions or how it will be done - in other words, the issues of diplomacy were of interest, rather, for a narrower range. The reasons for this attitude towards diplomacy are understandable and are justified on the part. First of all, it is necessary to realize what is happening, to outline the main foreign policy priorities and approaches, and then to seek the means of realization.

There are many definitions of the meaning diplomacy. Some are presented, for example, in such well-known books as the “diplomacy” of Mr. Nicholson (Nicholson, 1988), “Handbook on diplomatic practice” by E. Satow (Satow, 2011). The majority consider, first of all, from the fact that “diplomacy is an instrument for the implementation of interstate relations”. The indicator in this plan is the chapter of B. White “diplomacy”, which is prepared for the book "Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations", published in 1997, where diplomacy is characterized as one of the forms of government`s activity (White, 1997).

Chapter 32.

Global Management

Approaches to the understanding of the global management

The multiplicity of actors in the modern arena and the changing political structure of the world (which was already mentioned in the first part of the book), on the one hand, and the presence of the most complex world problems on the other (about those problems were discussed at the second part of the book), logically lead to the question of how and with or by whom all these problems should be resolved, and also what the new rules of interaction of participants are.

In the 20th century it became evident that the traditional international relations that were formed as a result of the interplay of individual states or their alliances on the world scene require greater orderliness and clear rules of conduct. The impetus for this was the two world wars, crises and conflicts of the end of the last century, the emergence of non-state actors in the world arena. However, the ideas of improving the management of the world, the creation of a single world community, were expressed earlier, including by I. Kant who wrote that trade cannot coexist with war and sooner or later the spirit of trade will take possession of all people (Kant, 1795).

In the beginning of the 20th century the main hopes were laid on more precise legal regulation of international relations, as well as the creation of intergovernmental organizations. After the Second World War, when the integration processes in Europe began to outline, the question arose about a global government, or world government, as some kind of unified organ on a world scale that is similar to the organization of statehood.

By the end of the 20th century, a new notion of global governance appeared. In wide circulation it has been introduced by W. Brandt and his colleagues from the UN Commission on Global Governance (Unterhalter, 1992). The commission was founded to discuss how joint efforts can solve such global problems as ecology, combating poverty, diseases and so on. The end of the Cold War also raised the issue of developing new rules of conduct on the world stage. As a result, the problem of global governance becomes popular in the 1990s. There were published journals “Global Governance”, “Global Society”. This thematic is central and in many other publications.

Currently, several approaches are being devised to understand what global governance is. For example, the German researcher D. Messner points about four main aspects.

The first approach actually repeats what sounded long before the end of the Cold War - the idea of forming a single world government. Its representatives, as before, proceed from the fact that it is created in the image and likeness of the state. Thus, L. Filkenstein writes that the world government should be engaged in the same issues in that the national states are involved. The problem is only to give for this structure the appropriate authority. But this point of view currently does not receive any special support from either political or scientific circles. The main objection here is that with such a wide variety of political systems, traditions, levels of economic development etc. it simply looks unrealistic (Messner, 2002).

The essence of the second approach is to reform international organizations, especially the United Nations, which becomes the central link in government, and its institutions begin to fulfill the role of distinct ministries and departments. For example, the Security Council will have the functions of government, the General Assembly - Parliament, and the IMF becomes a central bank, and so on. However, there is also a lot of revival in relation to this project. In particular, the impossibility of too much centralization within the framework of an international organization (Messner, 2002). They are also more opinions that the UN is not a subject to reform: its structure reflects the realities of the past epoch and the presence of for example Russia as a permanent member in the Security Council will negate all efforts to organize democratic governance of the world. In connection with the latter consideration, J. Galtung even suggested conducting global governance without the participation of great powers (Galtung, 1996).

The third approach is connected with the ideas of unipolarity of the world and its management by the United States as the main actor. This approach is followed by the authors, focused on the concept of realism. One of the most active actors in the unipolarity of the world, headed by the US, is Z. Brzezinski, who made four main areas in which they are leader: military-political, economic, technological and mass culture (Brzezinski, 1997).

It is interesting that sometimes supporters of the idea of an "American version" of world governance, as an argument in their support, lead the theoretical constructs of their neoliberal opponents. For example, they refer to the theory of hegemonic stability, which developed in the 1970s and 1980s by authors such as St. Krasner, R. Keohane and others. In studies carried out in line with international political economy, a study was made of the relationship between the stability of the economic regime and the existence of a certain state - leader. This allowed us to assert that, with the existence of such a hegemonic state, a stable economic regime is established, as a leader develops rules and norms of behavior that others accept (Krasner, Keohane, 1999).

However, it must be borne in mind that the theory of hegemonic stability shows the possibility of leadership in only one of the areas of economic. Simultaneous imposition of rules of conduct in all spheres of political, economic, cultural life is, as a rule, a sharp didn’t agree participants in international interaction.

As well as previous approaches, the idea of US hegemony causes a large number of critical responses, including those discussed in connection with the notions of unilateralism, convincingly demonstrates the impossibility of implementing this approach in a book published in 2002 from the year, which is called "The Paradox of American Power: Why the World`s Only Superpower Can`t Go it Alone". The main argument is that in today's world, the goals, interests and activities of other actors can no longer be taken into account (Nye, 2002).

Finally, the fourth approach is that global governance comes from the polycentricism of the world and involves participation in the governance of not only states and international education, but also other actors. It is their involvement in global governance that makes up the main difference of this approach from previous ones (Messner, 2002).

Conclusion

The events of the last 20-30 years, which were held in the world arena, have forced to observe with the new approaches on such meanings and political processes, as national interests, conflicts and wars, terrorism, national sovereignty and foreign policy. In the world politics the new spheres of the research have been appeared, including the topics, which relate to the education, development of the new technologies.

At the end of the XX and beginning of XXI Centuries, the formation of the world politics as a scientific and educational discipline, which is involved in the exploration of the existed and again formulating political system of the world, its structures, institutes and processes. More clearly have been determined the subjective spheres of other disciplines, including the classical international relations, it is not by accident that the development had the neoclassical, or how it is sometimes called, neo-traditional realism form, which focuses its attention directly on the analysis of interstate relations and foreign policy of the different countries, the problems of disarmament and arms race. Those topics are not excluded from the agenda in the modern period too.

World Politics – discipline, in the field of interest of which are modern political realities and tendencies for the future development of the world. It creates some difficulties for its study. Every day there are new facts about development the events in the world, some of them do not coincide with the previous imaginations and motivate to the rethinking those or other regularities. Thus, in many relations the key moments in the development of the world political processes were such events, as the disintegration of USSR and ending of the cold war. The serious challenges for the international security become the terrorist acts in USA in September 11 of 2001 and in the other states, first several European states (Great Britain, France, Spain). Also, processes, which were held in Afghanistan since 2001, Iraq since 2003 and Syria since 2011, occupation by Russia territories of Georgia in 2008 and Ukraine in 2014, confrontation between USA and Iran in 2020 etc. It is possible that some events, have not (or have not now) such enough influence on the tendencies of the world development, but can be the important from the factorial point of view. For the world politics as a scientific discipline all those factors means one: It can never be written finally.

If we are talking about the tendencies of the development the global processes, in this case now, although somehow carefully (because military-political and economic thematic is dominated), declares about itself “the human factor”. Human with its problems, possibilities, knowledges and skills is gradually coming to the front line of the research of the world politics.

To write the books is always the difficult task. Do it under the conditions, when the science is young, and when this science is involved in the study the problems of the present and tendencies, which can declare about themselves only in the future, is more complex by the double time.

First of all, many meanings and approaches, which were worked out in the various countries and which become there as primary (for example, level of analysis, international political economy, theory of hegemonic stability theory etc.), not always be the similar in the sciences of the other countries. Even in the modern epoch of the rapid development of the communicational and information technologies, it is needed the determined time for its introduction with the readers in many different countries.

For a second, novelty of the research subject causes for the introduction the new meanings, but it is clear, that to do it should be very carefully. It can be considered, that one of the such categories represent the understanding - political system of the world, which means the approach to the politics from the holistic positions, do not divide it on the internal and external ones. The world political system permits to analyze the political institutes and processes of the global level; to show, how this level determines the functioning of lower political levels – regional, national and local.

Third, world politics is especially dynamically developing discipline. It requires an attention to the daily facts and events, permanent interests to the news. Due to it any, even most ideal handbook cannot be the only book during the study process. Scientific articles, monographies and news of the information agencies permit permanently to match new events with those interpretations, which existed before. We can only approach to the finding the mystery, to do our prognosis on the future and see, how they justify themselves. But, political development permanently and by accelerated speed goes forward, presenting before us more and more new scientific and practical questions. Here is the great attractive power of the world politics and its study.