The Sound Kitchen - Great sound made easy

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE KEY TO SOUND ENGINEERING IS LISTENING

The journey of sound, from production to perception

DEFINITION OF SOUND

The perception of a vibrating object via a medium

2 elements make up what we call sound:

• An object that vibrates;
• A medium affected by the moving object;
• A receiver that perceives the “vibration”

Two sides: production and perception

Two languages: the language of science (production) and the language of music (perception). The sound engineer needs to speak both, to take music to science and science to music.

Key to sound: listening
Key to sound: listening
Key to sound: listening
Key to sound: listening
Key to sound: listening

Music is an expression of unity bound together by listening. Failing in listening is the most common and greatest musical and sound engineering failure.

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
3 STEPS OF SOUND ENGINEERING

DEFINITION OF SOUND ENGINEERING

Sound engineering is the ability to listen, reproduce and process sounds.

Three steps of sound engineering:

1. Listening

2. Imagining

3. Creating

The art of sound engineering

Sound engineering in its purest form is an art, because:

- It is an expression of human creative skill and imagination

- It produces works appreciated (primarily) for their beauty and/or emotional power

Sound engineering is essentially the combination of three different disciplines:

1. Acoustic engineering

2. Electronic engineering

3. "Musical" engineering

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE MINDSET OF A SUCEFUL SOUND ENGINEER

A. SOUND SYSTEM IS:
- An instrument in the hand of an engineer
- A vehicle in the hand of an artist/producer (not the engineer’s vehicle, F1 example)

B. THREE QUALITIES OF A GREAT SOUND ENGINEER (Renato Cantele’s quote)
1. Passion: pleasure and deep expression
2. Perseverance: always seeing challenges through
3. Respect: input from people (band and audience)

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
WE CAN ALL DO SOUND

Check if you retained the most important notions of this section

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
UNDERSTANDING MUSICAL "HEIGHT" & PITCH MEASURING UNIT

3 Distinctive characteristics of sound

A. VIBRATIONS: sinusoid description (concepts of periodicity, amplitude, terminology description)

B. PITCH, INTENSITY, TIMBRE

C. PITCH

The attribute of sound perception that gives the impression of (musical) “height”, enabling us to arrange sounds from low to high

The frequency of the vibration (how many cycles in a second), measured in Hz.

• Frequency range of human hearing
• Musical notes expressed in Hz (picture)
• Different frequency ranges for different instruments

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF INTENSITY & ITS UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

INTENSITY

The attribute of sound perception that gives the impression of loudness, enabling us to arrange sounds from soft to loud

The amplitude of the vibration (in absolute terms), measured in dB

• db scale (logic behind it and formulas)
• Different db scales
• Example of perception of loudness
• Ear protection awareness

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF INTENSITY & ITS UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

INTENSITY

The attribute of sound perception that gives the impression of loudness, enabling us to arrange sounds from soft to loud

The amplitude of the vibration (in absolute terms), measured in dB

• db scale (logic behind it and formulas)
• Different db scales
• Example of perception of loudness
• Ear protection awareness

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF INTENSITY & ITS UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF HARMONICS

TIMBRE

The attribute of sound perception that enables us to distinguish between different sounds even if they share the same loudness.

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
FURTHER UNDERSTANDING OF TIMBRE

The harmonic content (quantity) and balance (their individual intensities and interaction)of a sound.

Also dependent on pitch and intensity (in a lesser way)

• Concept of harmonics
• Example of same musical note by 2 different sources
• Frequency response: the timbre comparison between the input and output of a devise
• By changing the harmonic balance of a sound we change its timbre

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
APPLICATION OF A FREQUENCY RESPONSE GRAPH

• Frequency response: the timbre comparison between the input and output of a devise
• Tone perception (picture)
• By changing the harmonic balance of a sound we change its timbre
• EQ note: understanding harmonics and frequency response is crucial in understanding an equalizer
• Mixing note: mixing is mainly about balancing tone rather than loudness

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE ROLE OF TIMBRE IN MIXING & DESCRIPTION OF DURATION AND PHASE

• EQ note: understanding harmonics and frequency response is crucial in understanding an equalizer
• Mixing note: mixing is mainly about balancing tone rather than loudness

Duration is obviously the length of a sound. However the duration of a sound influences the integrity of our perception. A minimum length is required for our ears to establish the pitch, intensity and timbre of a sound. These minimum times vary at different frequencies.

Phase is the relationship in time between same or different frequencies produced by the same or different sources. When it comes to colour and perception of sound, phase is one of the most influential sound characteristics. Note: phase can also be described in relation to other sound laws in a different way.

OUTCOME OF LESSON
CONNECTING THE TWO LANGUAGES OF SOUND IN A PRACTICAL WAY

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE MINDSET BEHIND GREAT SOUND PRODUCTION

Sound production is the journey necessary to facilitate the perception of sound. It needs to be in place to take a sound and make it accessible. From the stage to the audience, from a recording room to a living room, the journey is always the same and it always goes through the same five stages:

1. Input sound field*
2. Input transducers**
3. Signal processing
4. Output transducers
5. Listener sound field

* An enclosure (literal, like a room or conceptual, like an open air stage) of air where sound is produced
**Transducer = translator, convertor: from one form of energy into another

Two of the five stages belong to the acoustic domain and three to the electronic domain. We call the latter 3 a sound system.

A sound system is the means (an arrangement of electronic components) with which we are able to relay sound from a source to an audience, for whatever reason and purpose.

Said differently, a sound system is the means that helps people to hear.

Most common applications of a sound system:

• Communication in large rooms
• Hearing aids
• Public announcements
• To cover remote locations
• Entertainment / artistic purposes

OUTCOME OF LESSON
IMPLICATIONS OF SOUND PRODUCTION

- Sound production spans over the acoustic and the electronic domain

- Sound production is a chain of events, like a journey. In most cases if a problem/issue is picked up in one stage, it is carried through to the remaining stages

- A sound production is successful when each aspect is correctly addressed. Hence, it is not about majoring on one of the five stages, but rather covering each one well (example: great mixer into poor speakers will still make for a poor production)

- If there is an issue/s in one of the five stages, the next will have to address and compensate for it. The problem would not be dealt with, as it can only be dealt with in the stage were the issue arose. The best approach is to solve the problem rather than to compensate (example: bad microphone = bad sound = EQ used to compensate, rather than for aesthetic reasons)

- If you use your resources to compensate you cannot create

- The weakest link in the chain of events determines the overall quality (example: the quality of a great microphone and great speakers will be brought down by the quality of a poor mixer) of the sound production

- The sum of all the errors (inaccuracies) in all the stages will determine the overall error (example: a sound source will be coloured by the overall sum of the frequency responses of microphone, mixer, speakers, and room)

- The departing goal of sound production is not to have altered (or minimally alter) a sound source when the journey ends. A sound production departs successfully when a listener (being on stage or in the audience) would perceive no timbre difference when comparing the same source

- If the above goal is achieved, the engineer is in the best position to manipulate the sound for aesthetic reasons to serve the musical vision of the production.

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
MINDSET OF A SUCCESSFUL ENGINEER IS TO SEE HIMSELF AS THE KEEPER OF THE SOUND PRODUCTION NOT JUST A TECHNICIAN WHO WORKS ON A SOUND SYSTEM

The sound engineer’s job is to have the ability to control or manipulate the sound. This is important in order to be able to serve the musical/sound vision of the production.

It also means that the sound engineer is in “charge” of the overall sound production, not only of the sound system.

There are mainly three ways to manipulate sound:
1. Acoustically
2. Electronically
3. Relationally

We will address Acoustics control next year. The majority of this course will be about Electronic control. For now let us consider it as the “Relational” control.

“Relational” control

An engineer needs to (to a great extent):

• Be skilled in communicating
• Inform clearly
• “Educate” when necessary (not in arrogant terms, simply by relaying information necessary in order for his clients to make an informed decision)

There are things that cannot be address with acoustic treatment or electronic manipulation.

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
A GREAT ENGINNER KNOWS HOW TO WORK WITH PEOPLE

Music is a spiritual/emotional expression and it is therefore obvious that not all things pertaining music are of a technical nature and can be addressed technically.

Burnie Groundman: “How long does it take?” “As long as we remain defensive” (paraphrased)

Fundamental: be open and not defensive

Further observations:

• You don’t do engineering for yourself
• Use tools to establish an open communication to and from the band
• Cultivate good relationships with producer/artist/band
• To create a good mix, good “input” (in the sense of feedback from artist/band/producer) is necessary
• Educate rather then criticize
• Become their fan Encourage/praise the band/artist/producer
• As an engineer you are in a place of authority, however that is only true if you can take responsibility (if the band sees you fully behind them both practically and in approach) they will listen to you
• Refrain from creating a “them” and “me” mindset, there is one musical vision which you are facilitating
• Create a platform of trust
• Understand that the Sound Engineer - Artist relationships is absolutely crucial
• Get your priorities right

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE "CONTROL" POLICY OF AN ENGINEER: ISOLATION

Definition
Isolation is the ability to reduce unwanted sounds in a specific input (a vocal microphone for example) or sound field (audience sitting area).

Isolation is the control policy of an engineer. Without isolation or with poor isolation, he will have little or no control.

It is very important to achieve:

• Isolation between different inputs
• Isolation between stage “sound field” and “audience sound field”

Isolation (for both of the above-mentioned scenarios) can be achieved with:

1. Acoustic treatment (for stage and individual instruments)

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE "CONTROL" POLICY OF AN ENGINEER: ISOLATION (continues)

2. Stage layout (attempting to reduce and/or control bleed into microphones)

3. Microphone choices and use of microphones (attempting to reduce and/or control bleed into microphones)

4. Monitoring choices and useage (reducing the on stage sound for the sake of the house) (picture)

Further observations:

• If the sound on stage is messy, the mix will also be messy.
• Isolation provides control at the starting point of the sound production; therefore good isolation will ultimately produce a better mix.
• Isolation will clean up the mix, especially if good isolation is achieved in a live set up between stage and audience.

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE CORRECT USAGE OF CABLES

Cable types:

1. Speaker: connects amp to speaker (resistance proportional to length inversely proportional to size). Best scenario, amp close to speaker.

2. Signal: connects analogue audio equipment.

3. Digital

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE CORRECT USAGE OF CABLES: BALANCED VERSUS UNBALANCED

Two types of signal cable:

a. Unbalanced uses 2 wire cable (ground – signal) and a 2 pin connectors (mainly with a slave and tip connectors), ground connects to sleeve and line to tip

b. Balanced uses 3 wire cable (ground, hot (signal), cold (signal)) an a 3 pin connector (XLR or TRS ¼` jack)

BALANCE CONNECTION

As far as possible ALWAYS use a balanced cable/connection

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
SIGNAL MATCHING

A DI box accomplishes three fundamental functions necessary to correctly interconnect equipment electronically:

1. Impedance matching

2. Signal balancing

3. Signal attenuation (when necessary)

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
IS A BALANCED CONNECTION A STEREO SIGNAL?

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
THE FIRST STEP INTO A SOUND SYSTEM

Definition: input transducer

Note: Sine wave shape is preserved as Voltage varies rather than Air Pressure

11 descriptive characteristics of microphones:

1. Diaphragm (size of diaphragm determines the freq. range)

2. SPL handling

3. S/N ratio (signal to noise ratio)

4. Transient period

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
HOW A MICROPHONE WORKS

11 descriptive characteristics of microphones (continues):

5. Transduction method:

• Dynamic
• Condenser
• Electric condenser
• Ribbon
• Carbon

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
HOW TO "POSITION" A MICROPHONE

11 descriptive characteristics of microphones (continues):

6. Pick up pattern

• Omni-directional

• Cardioid

• SuperCardioid

• HyperCardioid

• Figure 8 or bi-directional

6A. Proximity effect

OUTCOME OF LESSON:
WHAT A MIC "SOUNDS" LIKE

11 descriptive characteristics of microphones (continues):

7. Proximity effect

8. Functional design

• Hand-held
• Stand Mounting
• Levier
• Contact pick-up
• Pressure response
• Shotgun
• Parabolic

9. Frequency response

10. Connection type: balanced / unbalanced

11. Impedance

OUTCOME OF LESSON
ORIENTATION ON SAMPLITUDE, THE PC DAW USED IN THIS COURSE

OUTCOME OF LESSON
ORIENTATION ON REAPER, THE MAC DAW USED IN THIS COURSE

OUTCOME OF LESSON
UNDERSTANDING SIGNAL PROCESSING

Signal processing is the ability to control sound with electronic or digital equipment

Signal processing types
Signal processing is achieved by controlling five different aspects of sound:

1. Tone processing – controlling timbre

2. Intensity processing – controlling intensity

3. Time processing – controlling time

4. Routing – controlling the signal paths

5. Effects – adding them for aesthetic and production reasons

OUTCOME OF LESSON
UNDERSTANDING THE EQUALIZER

TONE PROCESSING: EQUALIZATION

Equalization is the process of changing the frequency response of an audio signal, therefore changing its timbre. It is achieved with the use of an equalizer.

Equalizer is:

- An electronic or digital devise that processes the frequency response of a signal

- Made up of bands

A band is:

- One change to the frequency response of the processed signal

- Frequency dependant gain control

OUTCOME OF LESSON
UNDERSTANDING THE BAND OF AN EQUALIZER

An equalizer has four possible EQ band types:

1. Fixed

2. Variable or sweepable

3. Parametric

4. Semi parametric

OUTCOME OF LESSON
UNDERSTANDING THE POSSIBLE CHANGES AN EQUALIZER BAND BRINGS TO THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

There are six EQ shapes (or frequency response alteration shapes):

1. Low shelving (low frequency band related)

2. High shelving (high frequency band related)

3. Bell or peak

OUTCOME OF LESSON
UNDERSTANDING THE POSSIBLE CHANGES AN EQUALIZER BAND BRINGS TO THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Six EQ shapes (or frequency response alteration shapes):

4. HPF (high pass filter)

5. LPF (low pass filter)

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO USE AN EQUALIZER

Tone processing steps:

1. Listen – listen flat

2. Imagine – process audio info mentally and set a sound/musical goal

3. Create – with the use of the equalizer achieve the goal set

NOTE EQ tips (pictures)

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO USE AN EQUALIZER

Practical tips for equalizing:

• Focus on mids
• Learn the art of A-B comparison
• Sweep (if you need to)

OUTCOME OF LESSON
EQUALIZER HOW TOs

How and why run an A-B comparison

How to find a frequency using the "sweep" technique

OUTCOME OF LESSON
USE OF THE SWEEPING TECHNIQUES

We can use the sweeping technique in 2 ways:

• We know what we are looking for we can hear it.
• We know there is something not right but not sure what it is
  

OUTCOME OF LESSON
A MIXER IS A MULTI-DEVICE PIECE OF GEAR

A mixer is an electronic or digital audio unit made up of different electronic/digital devices by which two or more (up to all five) signal processing types are controlled.

Devices making up a mixer:

1. Pre-amp (Intensity processing – controlling intensity)

2. Equalizer (Tone processing – controlling timbre)

3. Routing matrix (Routing - controlling the signal paths)

4. On board effects units (Adding efffects for aesthetic and production reasons)
some analogue and most digital mixers

5. On board dynamics (Intensity processing – controlling intensity)
some analogue and most digital mixers

6. On board input or output delay (Time processing – controlling time)
some digital mixers

An average analogue mixer will perform the following audio processing:

1. Dynamic
2. Tone
3. Routing

OUTCOME OF LESSON
WHAT ON EARTH IS A SIGNAL PATH?

A signal Path, is the path covered by a signal in a sound system from input to output transduction. It describes at which stage of the “journey” the sound is processed by a specific devise.

Examples:

Mic----Pre Amp----Eq----Compression----Routing system----Amplifier----Speaker

Mic----Pre Amp----Compression----Eq----Routing system----Amplifier----Speaker

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO USE SIGNAL METERING IN A MIXER

METERING
Every mixer has a metering section (from very simple to more articulated). The metering section helps the engineer monitor a signal (or a bunch of them) on a dB scale. On all mixers, the main meter can be assigned to measure a signal in different places of the signal path. Understanding how to use metering effectively within a mixer, is at the basis of Gain Setting and troubleshooting.

OUTCOME OF LESSON
UNDERSTANDING THE PRE-AMP

A Pre-amp is the electronic devise that changes the voltage/current level of input signal. Every signal produces a different voltage level. It is necessary to set each input level similarly. We call this gain structure.

• Gain structure concepts:
- Beginning of mix
- Setting a correct gain is crucial to correct signal flow

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO SET A CHANNEL'S PRE-AMP LEVEL

OUTCOME OF LESSON
GETTING TO KNOW THE MIXER ROUTING TERMINOLOGY

Description: The facility by which we can send (rout) an input signal to one or more outputs at the same time. The way in which the signal is routed to an output will mostly be one of the following (or a combination of):

1. Fixed, when a signal is directly patched to an output without a level control in-between. Example: Pre Fader Direct Output for a single channel

2. Variable, when a signal is sent to an output via a level control (like a fader or a potentiometer). Example: Normal mixer channel to a LR master or Subgroup Master

3. Pre / post fader (refer to signal path)

4. Pre / post EQ (refer to signal path)

OUTCOME OF LESSON
ROUTING MADE PRACTICAL

1. Individual channel direct output: Can be pre or postfader and pre or postEq, also can be variable but mostly is fixed

2. Auxiliary mixes: Can be pre or postfader and pre or postEq and almost always is variable. Monitor mixes are mainly derived with this routing type from the input signals. Each channel has access to the same auxiliary output via a potentiometer/fader.

NOTE: When using the same mixer for FOH and monitor mixes, it would be important to have pre fader and post Eq auxiliary rooting for the monitor mixes. Make sure you know what type of auxiliary routing is available in your mixer by reading the manual.

3. Insert: always pre fader, almost always pre Eq but some mixers allow postEqinsert as an option

4. Channel to master outputs: always post fader and post Eq and obviously variable (via the fader). Almost always a mono to stereo routing via a Panorama (PAN) control. More advanced routings are also available like LCR or surround.

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW THE CHANNEL TO MASTER CONNECTION WORKS

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW A LOUDSPEAKER WORKS

9 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1. A loudspeaker is an electro-acoustic device made up of one or more drivers.
2. A driver is an output transducer with a specific frequency range and frequency response. One single driver does not cover well the full frequency range

3. To cover the audible frequency range, a loudspeaker uses a number of drivers that cover a section of the frequency range. Each of these sections is called way or band (we refer to a 3 way speakers, a 2 way speakers and so on).
4. A way can be made up of 1 or more drive of the same type.

5. Within a loudspeaker system additional way or bands will be added by additional loudspeakers that function in another frequency range. For example, adding a sub (that has a frequency range in the low part of the sound spectrum) will add a 3rd way to a 2way speaker.

6. Where the frequency range of a way/band ends, the frequency range of the other way/band starts.

7. The point where the 2 way/band meet is called crossover point

8. An electronic device called crossover will perform the “division” of the audible frequency range into the different ways/bands.

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW A LOUDSPEAKER CROSSOVER SYSTEM WORKS

9 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS (CONTINUES)

9. A Crossover system can be either: passive (made up of passive electronic components) or active (made up of active electronic components often packaged in an analogue or digital audio unit)

- Passive: Amp -> Passive crossover -> Drivers

- Active: Active crossover -> Amp1 & 2 -> Drivers

OUTCOME OF LESSON
THE INDISPENSABLE NOTIONS OF A LOUDSPEAKER

SIX IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF A LOUDSPEAKER

1. Impedance

2. Power ratings (continuous, program, peak - match program power to amp power)

OUTCOME OF LESSON
THE INDISPENSABLE NOTIONS OF A LOUDSPEAKER

SIX IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF A LOUDSPEAKER (continues)

3. Sensitivity (example 97dbSPL, 1watt@1 meter)

OUTCOME OF LESSON
THE INDISPENSABLE NOTIONS OF A LOUDSPEAKER

SIX IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF A LOUDSPEAKER (continues)

4. Coverage (how the speaker “projects” high frequencies on the horizontal and vertical plane, calculated between the two -6 db points in a polar pattern generally at 1kHz)

- Coverage for monitors

5. Max SPL

6. Frequency response

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO SET UP A PA IN A ROOM

Speaker choice - Choosing the right speaker for a room is a complex matter, however it can be simplified to the two most crucial aspects:

A. Level:

• What is the SPL range we need for the good of the production?
• Will there be enough level at the end of the venue? This is easy to calculate, knowing the specs of the speaker and using the inverse square law (or db formula), the level at the back can be calculated.
• How is the level spreading in the venue?
• Do I have enough headroom?

B. Coverage:

• Do the high frequency (especially 2-4 kHz for speech and 2-10KHz for music) cover every sit in the audience or are there big gaps .
• Are the mid-low and low frequencies too present on stage?

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO SET UP A PA IN A ROOM  (continues)

Speaker placement Once a speaker has been carefully chosen, it needs to be placed carefully. To place a speaker, it needs to be:

A. Elevated (generally as much as possible) so that the level difference between front and last row differ the least amount possible

B. Turned (horizontally)

C. Tilted (vertically) to cover the audience in the best possible way

When placing a speaker, 2 other important considerations are:

1. Acoustic gain (to prevent feedback) – refer to next lesson

2. Spill on stage (to prevent feedback and “masking” of the monitors)

NOTE: it is absolutely fundamental to have a clear knowledge of the specifications of a loudspeaker before using it

SYSTEM DESIGN
A very important branch of sound engineering is “system design” (generally performed by a “system engineer”). System design is the science/art of setting up a PA system for a specific audience.

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO CONTROL FEEDBACK

IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES:

A. MASKING

B. ACOUSTIC GAIN

1. Decrease the distance between the source and the mic
2. Increase the distance between mic and loudspeaker
3. Use directive elements

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO CONTROL FEEDBACK WITH EQ

OUTCOME OF LESSON
THE MIX: THE APEX OF SOUND PRODUCTION

BASIC MIXING PRINCIPLES

1. The harvest: mixing is the harvest of a sound production. If the sound production was well planned and implemented, the mix will be on a solid foundation

2. A mix is built, like “a house”

3. The cardinal principle in mixing: listening

4. The role of “processing” in a mix

5. The role of music in the success of a mix

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW TO ATTAIN MUSICAL BALANCE

MUSICAL COMPONENTS

1. Pulse

2. Rhythm

3. Harmony

4. Melody

OUTCOME OF LESSON
BUILDING A MIX IS LIKE BUILDING A HOUSE

THE MUSICAL BUILDING

1. Pulse – the foundation

2. Rhythm – the walls

3. Harmony (more than one note at the same time) – the roof

4. Melody – the dweller

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HANDLING DIFFERENT SOUNDS IN A MIX

A. SOUNDS: FUNDAMENTAL AND FILLERS

• Fundamental: essential to the song (the instrument/s without which the 4 main musical components would not be established) – building the “structure” of the house
• Fillers: Extra instruments that colour the song but are not foundational (the decorating of the house)

B. GAIN STRUCTURE (the mix before the mix)

OUTCOME OF LESSON
WHAT A MIX IS REALLY ALL ABOUT

A. THE MASKING PRINCIPLE

B. UNMASKING WITH EQ

C. MIXING IN CONTEXT

OUTCOME OF LESSON
HOW DO I KNOW THAT SOMETHING IS AT THE RIGHT LEVEL?

A. THE DOMINO EFFECT

B. WHAT CAN I DROP?

• The use of the mute button