Optical engineering is a specialized field focused on the science and application of light, known as optics and photonics. It involves designing components like lenses, microscopes, telescopes, lasers, and fiber optic systems. Optical engineers work across the entire process, from conceptualization and design to manufacturing and testing.
Imagine designing the tiny cameras in smartphones, the powerful lasers used in manufacturing, or the intricate fiber optic networks that connect the world. This is the domain of the optical engineer. The field blends physics, electrical engineering, and materials science to manipulate light for countless applications, impacting how we communicate, see the world, and even receive medical care.
Working as an optical engineer can be incredibly engaging. You might find yourself simulating complex optical systems, experimenting with cutting-edge laser technologies, or developing novel imaging techniques for medical diagnostics or autonomous vehicles. It's a career that demands precision, creativity, and a deep understanding of how light behaves.
Optical engineering is a specialized field focused on the science and application of light, known as optics and photonics. It involves designing components like lenses, microscopes, telescopes, lasers, and fiber optic systems. Optical engineers work across the entire process, from conceptualization and design to manufacturing and testing.
Imagine designing the tiny cameras in smartphones, the powerful lasers used in manufacturing, or the intricate fiber optic networks that connect the world. This is the domain of the optical engineer. The field blends physics, electrical engineering, and materials science to manipulate light for countless applications, impacting how we communicate, see the world, and even receive medical care.
Working as an optical engineer can be incredibly engaging. You might find yourself simulating complex optical systems, experimenting with cutting-edge laser technologies, or developing novel imaging techniques for medical diagnostics or autonomous vehicles. It's a career that demands precision, creativity, and a deep understanding of how light behaves.
At its core, optical engineering is the discipline concerned with the practical application of optics. Engineers in this field design and build devices that make use of the properties of light. This encompasses everything from simple magnifying glasses to complex systems involving lasers, detectors, and sophisticated optical coatings.
The scope is vast, covering the generation, transmission, manipulation, detection, and utilization of light. Optical engineers need a strong foundation in physics, particularly electromagnetism and wave theory, as well as mathematics and materials science. They apply these principles to create functional and innovative optical systems.
Understanding the behavior of light—how it reflects, refracts, diffracts, and interacts with matter—is fundamental. This knowledge allows engineers to design lenses that focus light precisely, fibers that guide signals over long distances, and sensors that detect faint light sources.
Optical engineers are vital in numerous high-tech industries. Telecommunications heavily relies on optical fibers for high-speed data transmission, a technology designed and refined by optical engineers. The internet, as we know it, wouldn't exist without their contributions.
In aerospace and defense, optical engineers develop systems for reconnaissance, navigation, targeting, and communication. This includes designing telescopes for space exploration, sensors for satellites, and guidance systems for aircraft and missiles.
The healthcare sector also benefits significantly. Optical engineers contribute to medical imaging technologies like endoscopy and microscopy, diagnostic tools using spectroscopy, and therapeutic applications like laser surgery. Their work leads to less invasive procedures and better diagnostic capabilities.
Other important sectors include consumer electronics (displays, cameras, virtual/augmented reality headsets), semiconductor manufacturing (lithography systems), automotive (LiDAR sensors for autonomous driving), and industrial manufacturing (laser cutting and welding).
Optical engineering is inherently interdisciplinary, sharing significant overlap with several related fields. Photonics, often used interchangeably, focuses more broadly on the generation, detection, and manipulation of photons, particularly in quantum contexts and semiconductor devices.
Electrical engineering provides the foundation for understanding the electronic components often integrated with optical systems, such as detectors, modulators, and control circuits. Many optical engineers have backgrounds in electrical engineering, specializing later in optics.
Materials science is crucial for developing new optical materials, coatings, and components with specific properties, like high transmission, specific refractive indices, or nonlinear optical behavior. Physics provides the fundamental theoretical framework upon which optics is built.
A solid grasp of fundamental optical principles is essential. Geometric optics treats light as rays traveling in straight lines, governed by the laws of reflection and refraction. It's used for basic lens design and understanding image formation in systems like cameras and telescopes.
Wave optics, on the other hand, considers the wave nature of light, explaining phenomena like diffraction and interference. This is crucial for understanding the limits of resolution, the behavior of lasers, and the design of components like diffraction gratings.
Electromagnetic optics, based on Maxwell's equations, provides the most complete description of light as an electromagnetic wave. It's necessary for understanding polarization, interaction with materials, and designing advanced optical coatings and waveguides.
These introductory courses cover the essential physics concepts that underpin optical engineering.
For those seeking foundational texts in optics, these books are highly regarded classics.
Optical engineers rely on specialized software for designing, simulating, and analyzing optical systems. Tools like Zemax OpticStudio and Synopsys CODE V are industry standards for lens design and optical system simulation, allowing engineers to model ray tracing, analyze aberrations, and optimize performance.
For more complex simulations involving wave propagation, diffraction, or interaction with structures, software like COMSOL Multiphysics or Lumerical (part of Ansys) are often used. These tools employ methods like Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) or Finite Element Method (FEM) to solve Maxwell's equations directly.
Experimental work requires laboratory equipment such as optical benches, lasers, power meters, spectrometers, interferometers, and various optical components. Proficiency in using measurement instruments and aligning optical setups is a critical hands-on skill.
These online courses provide introductions to industry-standard optical design software, particularly Zemax OpticStudio.
Optical systems are built from a variety of specialized materials and components. Lenses, mirrors, and prisms, typically made from optical glasses like BK7 or fused silica, are fundamental for refracting and reflecting light. The choice of material depends on factors like refractive index, dispersion, and transmission range.
Lasers are crucial light sources in many applications, ranging from tiny diode lasers in optical drives to powerful industrial lasers for cutting metal. Understanding different types of lasers and their properties (wavelength, power, coherence) is essential.
Optical fibers, thin strands of glass or plastic, guide light over long distances with minimal loss, forming the backbone of modern telecommunications. Detectors, such as photodiodes and CCD/CMOS sensors, convert light signals into electrical signals for measurement or imaging.
A bachelor's degree in a relevant engineering or science field is typically the minimum requirement to enter the field. While some universities offer specific undergraduate degrees in Optical Engineering or Photonics, it's more common to major in Electrical Engineering, Physics, or Mechanical Engineering and specialize through elective coursework and projects.
Curricula usually include foundational courses in calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, physics (mechanics, electromagnetism, modern physics), and general engineering principles. Specialization courses might cover geometric and wave optics, lasers, fiber optics, and optical design.
Gaining practical experience through internships or co-op programs is highly valuable. This allows students to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world settings and gain familiarity with industry tools and practices. Look for opportunities within engineering or physics departments.
For research-oriented roles or positions requiring deeper specialization, a master's or doctoral degree (Ph.D.) is often necessary. Graduate programs offer advanced coursework in areas like quantum optics, nanophotonics, nonlinear optics, optical system design, and imaging science.
A Ph.D. involves significant independent research, culminating in a dissertation that contributes original knowledge to the field. This path is common for those aiming for academic positions or leading-edge research and development roles in industry or national laboratories.
Choosing a graduate program involves considering faculty research areas, available laboratory facilities, and industry connections. Many universities have dedicated centers or institutes focusing on optics and photonics research.
These courses delve into advanced topics often covered in graduate studies.
These books cover advanced and specialized topics often encountered in graduate research and professional practice.
Regardless of the specific degree path, certain core subjects are fundamental. Electromagnetism provides the theoretical basis for light. Courses in geometric and physical optics are essential for understanding basic optical phenomena and design principles.
Specific courses in optical system design, laser physics, fiber optics, and optical detectors build specialized knowledge. Laboratory courses provide hands-on experience with alignment, measurement, and characterization techniques.
While not always mandatory, professional certifications can enhance credentials. Organizations like SPIE (the international society for optics and photonics) and Optica (formerly OSA) offer resources and may have certification programs or professional development courses relevant to the field, though formal, widely recognized certifications are less common than in fields like IT or project management. Check their websites, like SPIE and Optica, for current offerings.
Online courses can be an excellent way to build foundational knowledge in optics and related areas. Many platforms offer courses covering physics, mathematics, and introductory optics principles, often taught by university professors.
These resources are particularly valuable for individuals exploring the field, supplementing formal education, or pivoting from adjacent careers like mechanical or electrical engineering. Online learning offers flexibility, allowing learners to study at their own pace.
However, optical engineering is also a hands-on discipline. While online courses excel at delivering theoretical knowledge and software skills (like Zemax training), they often lack the laboratory component crucial for developing experimental proficiency. Building practical skills usually requires access to physical equipment.
OpenCourser provides access to a wide range of courses, allowing you to browse engineering topics or search specifically for optics-related content. Use the "Save to list" feature to curate your learning path.
These courses offer foundational knowledge accessible online.
Supplementing online coursework with hands-on projects is crucial for developing practical skills. Even without a full lab setup, aspiring optical engineers can undertake valuable projects. This could involve simulating optical systems using software, analyzing publicly available optical data, or even building simple optical devices.
Consider projects like designing a simple telescope or microscope using ray-tracing software, simulating laser beam propagation, or analyzing images captured by standard cameras. Contributing to open-source optics software or hardware projects can also provide valuable experience.
Documenting your projects thoroughly, perhaps on a personal website or portfolio, demonstrates initiative and practical ability to potential employers. This is especially important for those relying heavily on online learning or transitioning careers.
These courses focus on specific design aspects and tools, lending themselves well to project-based learning.
Online courses are not just for beginners; they can effectively supplement formal university programs. Students can use them to explore specialized topics not covered in their curriculum, gain proficiency in specific software tools, or reinforce understanding of challenging concepts.
For instance, a physics major might take online courses in lens design software, while an electrical engineering student could delve deeper into quantum optics or semiconductor device physics related to optical detectors.
Professionals already working in the field can use online learning for continuous professional development, staying updated on new technologies, materials, or simulation techniques without committing to a full degree program. OpenCourser's Learner's Guide offers tips on integrating online learning effectively.
These courses cover more specialized or applied topics suitable for supplementing a core curriculum.
While professional optical design software can be expensive, several open-source alternatives exist. Tools like Python libraries (e.g., RayOptics, PyOptica) allow for ray tracing and optical system analysis. Engaging with these tools provides software experience and allows for independent exploration of optical design concepts.
For hardware experimentation, affordable components like basic lenses, mirrors, LEDs, photodiodes, and even small lasers can be sourced online. Platforms like Arduino or Raspberry Pi can be used for controlling experiments or processing sensor data. While not replicating a full industrial lab, simple setups can help build intuition and practical skills.
Joining online communities or forums dedicated to amateur optics or specific open-source projects can provide support, inspiration, and opportunities for collaboration. Sharing your experiments and results fosters learning and engagement.
This book specifically leverages Python for optical analysis, aligning with the use of open-source tools.
Graduates typically start in roles such as Optical Technician, Junior Optical Engineer, or Assistant Design Engineer. Initial responsibilities often involve supporting senior engineers, performing testing and measurements, assembling optical setups, running simulations, or documenting designs.
These roles provide essential hands-on experience and exposure to industry practices. Optical technicians focus more on building, aligning, and testing hardware, while junior engineers might be more involved in design calculations, simulations, and data analysis.
Strong foundational knowledge, familiarity with lab equipment, and proficiency in relevant software are key assets for securing entry-level positions. Internships significantly strengthen a candidate's profile.
With several years of experience, optical engineers can advance to roles like Senior Optical Engineer, Systems Engineer, or R&D Engineer. Responsibilities increase to include leading design projects, managing small teams, developing new optical technologies or processes, and interacting with clients or other departments.
At this stage, engineers often develop expertise in specific areas, such as lens design, laser systems, fiber optics, or optical metrology. Strong problem-solving skills, project management abilities, and effective communication become increasingly important.
Further specialization might involve pursuing advanced degrees or certifications, publishing research, or presenting at industry conferences. Building a professional network through organizations like Optica or SPIE is also beneficial.
Experienced optical engineers have several advanced career paths available. Some move into technical leadership roles, such as Principal Engineer, Technical Fellow, or Chief Technology Officer (CTO), guiding the technical direction of projects or entire organizations.
Others transition into management, overseeing engineering teams or departments. This requires strong leadership, strategic planning, and business acumen. An MBA or management training can be helpful for this path.
A research-focused path might lead to roles in academia as a professor or researcher, or senior scientist positions in industrial research labs or government institutions. This typically requires a Ph.D. and a strong publication record.
Entrepreneurship is another possibility, with engineers founding startups based on innovative optical technologies they have developed.
Progression timelines vary depending on individual performance, company structure, and industry dynamics. Generally, reaching a senior engineer level might take 5-10 years of experience. Moving into principal or management roles often requires 10-15+ years.
Key skill milestones include mastering fundamental optical principles and tools early on, developing proficiency in design and simulation software, gaining hands-on laboratory experience, leading small projects, and eventually taking responsibility for complex system design or research initiatives.
Continuous learning is crucial throughout an optical engineer's career due to the rapid pace of technological advancement in areas like lasers, sensors, materials, and computing. Salary expectations generally increase with experience and responsibility, often aligning with other specialized engineering fields. Specific salary data can vary significantly by location, industry, and education level; resources like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Occupational Employment Statistics can provide general benchmarks for related engineering roles, although optical engineering may not always be listed separately.
A significant portion of an optical engineer's time, particularly in design roles, involves creating and refining optical systems. This starts with defining requirements, conceptualizing potential solutions, and then using specialized software (like Zemax or CODE V) to model the system.
Engineers perform ray tracing, analyze optical aberrations (like spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism), evaluate image quality, and optimize designs to meet performance specifications, cost targets, and manufacturing constraints. This iterative process involves adjusting parameters like lens curvatures, thicknesses, materials, and positions.
Simulation is used not only for design but also for tolerance analysis – determining how manufacturing variations might affect performance – and for modeling complex phenomena like diffraction, polarization effects, or thermal influences.
These courses focus directly on the design and simulation aspects of optical systems.
Optical engineers rarely work in isolation. They frequently collaborate with engineers from other disciplines, such as mechanical engineers (for housing and mounting optics), electrical engineers (for sensors, control systems, power), and software engineers (for image processing or system control).
Effective communication is vital to ensure the optical subsystem integrates correctly with the overall product or system. They also interact with project managers, manufacturing teams, quality assurance personnel, and sometimes marketing or sales teams.
Participating in design reviews, presenting technical findings, and contributing to team problem-solving are common activities. The ability to explain complex optical concepts to non-specialists is a valuable skill.
Once components or systems are built, optical engineers are often involved in testing and verification. This involves designing test procedures, setting up laboratory measurements, and using instruments like interferometers, spectrometers, and beam profilers to characterize performance.
They compare measured results against design specifications and simulations, troubleshoot discrepancies, and identify potential issues. Quality assurance involves ensuring that components and systems meet required standards throughout the manufacturing process.
This practical aspect requires meticulous attention to detail, proficiency with measurement equipment, and a good understanding of statistical analysis and error sources.
Thorough documentation is a critical, though sometimes overlooked, aspect of engineering. Optical engineers must document their designs, simulation results, test procedures, and measurement data clearly and accurately.
This documentation serves as a record for future reference, facilitates collaboration, supports patent applications, and is often required for regulatory compliance, particularly in fields like medical devices or aerospace.
Engineers must be aware of relevant industry standards (e.g., ISO standards for optical drawings) and ensure their work complies with applicable regulations and safety requirements, especially when working with lasers or in specific industries.
The demand for optical engineers is influenced by trends in various high-tech sectors. The growth of autonomous vehicles, for instance, drives demand for engineers skilled in designing and integrating LiDAR systems and advanced cameras.
Telecommunications continues to evolve with higher data rates and new network architectures, requiring expertise in fiber optics, integrated photonics, and optical switching. Consumer electronics fuel innovation in display technologies, mobile cameras, and augmented/virtual reality optics.
Advances in semiconductor manufacturing rely heavily on sophisticated optical lithography techniques to create ever-smaller features on chips, pushing the boundaries of optical system design and materials science.
Optical engineering plays a pivotal role in several rapidly emerging fields. Quantum computing and quantum communication utilize photonic principles for qubit manipulation and secure information transfer, creating new opportunities for engineers with expertise in quantum optics.
Biophotonics, the intersection of optics and biology/medicine, is a growing area focused on developing novel imaging, sensing, and therapeutic techniques using light. This includes advancements in microscopy, spectroscopy for diagnostics, and light-activated therapies.
Other areas include advanced materials development (metamaterials, plasmonics), energy (solar cell efficiency, lighting), and environmental monitoring (remote sensing).
Optics and photonics are considered enabling technologies, meaning they underpin advancements across a wide range of industries, contributing significantly to economic growth and innovation. The global market for photonics components and systems is substantial and projected to continue growing.
While specific job growth data for "Optical Engineer" might be included within broader categories like "Electrical and Electronics Engineers" or "Physicists" by agencies like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Occupational Outlook Handbook, the demand for individuals with optical skills remains strong in key sectors.
Factors driving growth include the increasing integration of optical sensors in various products, the expansion of fiber optic networks, advancements in medical imaging, and the development of next-generation computing and communication technologies.
Optical systems often demand extremely high precision. Lens surfaces must be shaped with sub-wavelength accuracy, and components must be aligned with tolerances measured in microns or arcseconds. Achieving and maintaining this precision during manufacturing and assembly is a significant challenge.
Engineers must carefully consider manufacturing tolerances during the design phase, using simulation tools to predict the impact of potential variations. Developing cost-effective manufacturing and testing processes that meet these stringent requirements requires close collaboration between design and manufacturing teams.
Environmental factors like temperature changes or vibrations can also affect the performance of precision optical systems, requiring careful mechanical design and potentially active compensation mechanisms.
Like many engineering fields, optical engineering involves ethical considerations. The development of optical technologies for military applications, such as targeting systems or surveillance, raises complex ethical questions about their use.
The increasing prevalence of optical sensors in surveillance systems (e.g., facial recognition cameras) brings concerns about privacy and potential misuse of data. Engineers have a responsibility to consider the societal impact of the technologies they develop.
Ensuring fairness and mitigating bias in systems that use optical data, such as AI-powered image analysis, is another emerging ethical challenge. Professional engineering codes of ethics provide guidance on navigating these issues responsibly.
The production of optical components involves various materials and chemical processes. Some materials used in specialized optics (e.g., certain infrared materials or coatings) may be rare, energy-intensive to process, or pose environmental hazards if not handled and disposed of properly.
Engineers are increasingly considering the environmental footprint of their designs, seeking more sustainable materials and manufacturing processes. The energy efficiency of optical systems, particularly in lighting and data transmission, is also an important consideration related to environmental impact.
Research into recyclable optical materials and greener fabrication techniques is an ongoing effort within the field, contributing to broader sustainability goals.
Automation and artificial intelligence (AI) are influencing optical engineering, much like other fields. AI algorithms can assist in optimizing complex optical designs, potentially accelerating the design process and exploring novel solutions that might be missed by human designers.
Automation is also impacting manufacturing and testing, with robotic systems used for high-precision assembly and alignment, and automated test stations performing rapid quality control. While some routine tasks may become automated, the need for engineers to define problems, interpret results, oversee complex systems, and drive innovation is expected to remain strong.
Engineers who can leverage AI tools effectively and understand how to integrate AI with optical systems (e.g., in computer vision or adaptive optics) will likely be in high demand.
The demand for optical engineers is global, driven by technology hubs and industries spread across North America, Europe, and Asia. Specific regional strengths exist; for example, certain areas may have concentrations of semiconductor manufacturing, telecommunications equipment providers, or biomedical device companies.
Globalization means that projects often involve international collaboration, and supply chains for optical components are distributed worldwide. Opportunities may vary based on regional economic conditions and government investments in specific technology sectors (like quantum initiatives or green energy).
Keeping abreast of global technology trends and being open to opportunities in different regions can broaden career prospects. Proficiency in multiple languages or experience working in international teams can be advantageous.
The future of optical engineering is closely tied to interdisciplinary collaboration. Innovations often occur at the intersection of optics and other fields. Neurophotonics, for example, combines optics with neuroscience to develop tools for imaging and manipulating brain activity, offering insights into brain function and potential treatments for neurological disorders.
Integrated photonics, merging optical components onto semiconductor chips similar to integrated circuits, promises smaller, cheaper, and more efficient optical systems for communications, sensing, and computing. This requires expertise spanning optics, materials science, and semiconductor fabrication.
Other exciting areas include optical metamaterials for unprecedented control over light, advancements in LiDAR for autonomous systems, and the use of optics in next-generation displays and human-computer interfaces.
A Ph.D. is generally not required for most industry roles in optical engineering, especially in design, testing, and systems integration. A bachelor's or master's degree in a relevant field (optical engineering, physics, electrical engineering) is typically sufficient for entry and advancement in these areas.
However, a Ph.D. is often necessary or highly advantageous for research-intensive positions, particularly in academia, national laboratories, or advanced R&D departments within large companies. It signifies deep expertise and the ability to conduct independent research.
The choice depends on career goals. If your aim is cutting-edge research or an academic career, a Ph.D. is usually the standard path. For most applied engineering roles, practical experience and a master's degree can be more valuable.
The job market for optical engineers is generally considered healthy but can be competitive, especially for highly desirable positions or in specific geographic locations. Demand is driven by growth in key industries like telecommunications, semiconductor manufacturing, aerospace, medical devices, and consumer electronics.
Competition levels can fluctuate with economic conditions and industry trends. Candidates with strong academic backgrounds, relevant internship or project experience, proficiency in industry-standard software, and good communication skills tend to be more competitive.
Specialization in high-demand areas like LiDAR, quantum optics, or integrated photonics can also enhance job prospects. Networking through professional societies and university connections can be beneficial in navigating the job market.
Yes, mechanical engineers can certainly transition into optical engineering, often finding roles in opto-mechanics. This specialty focuses on the design of mounts, housings, and precision mechanisms needed to hold optical components stable and accurately aligned, often under challenging environmental conditions (like temperature changes or vibration).
A mechanical engineer wishing to transition might need to supplement their background with coursework or self-study in fundamental optics (geometric optics, wave optics), optical materials, and perhaps optical design software.
Their expertise in structural analysis, thermal management, materials, and precision engineering is highly valuable in many optical system development projects. Highlighting these transferable skills is key when seeking opto-mechanical roles.
Several industries are major employers of optical engineers. The telecommunications sector relies heavily on optical engineers for fiber optic network design, components, and equipment. The semiconductor industry needs them for developing and maintaining complex optical lithography systems.
Aerospace and defense companies hire optical engineers for designing sensors, imaging systems, laser systems, and guidance technologies. The medical device industry employs them for creating diagnostic imaging tools (endoscopes, microscopes), surgical lasers, and biosensors.
Consumer electronics companies need optical engineers for camera modules, displays (LCD, OLED, microLEDs), virtual and augmented reality headsets, and optical storage. Additionally, research institutions and universities employ optical engineers for fundamental and applied research.
The terms "Optical Engineer" and "Photonics Engineer" are often used interchangeably, and the distinction can be blurry. Both deal with the science and application of light. However, "Photonics" sometimes implies a stronger focus on the quantum nature of light (photons) and its interaction with semiconductor materials.
Photonics engineers might work more specifically on devices like lasers, LEDs, photodetectors, modulators, and integrated photonic circuits, often involving semiconductor physics and fabrication processes. Optical engineering might traditionally have a broader scope including classical lens design, illumination systems, and large optical instruments like telescopes.
In practice, job roles often overlap significantly. The specific title used may depend more on the company or university department's convention than on a strict difference in responsibilities. Both require a strong foundation in optics and physics.
Internships or relevant co-op experiences are highly valuable, and often considered critical, for securing entry-level optical engineering positions. They provide practical, hands-on experience that complements academic learning.
Internships allow students to apply theoretical knowledge, gain familiarity with industry tools and processes, develop professional skills (like teamwork and communication), and build a professional network. This real-world experience makes candidates significantly more attractive to employers.
While it's possible to get an entry-level job without an internship, especially with strong academic performance and relevant project work, having internship experience greatly increases competitiveness. It demonstrates initiative and provides tangible evidence of practical skills.
Embarking on a career as an optical engineer requires dedication to mastering complex physics and mathematics, alongside developing practical design and laboratory skills. It's a challenging yet rewarding field that allows you to work at the forefront of technology, shaping how we interact with the world through the power of light. Whether you are just starting your educational journey or considering a career pivot, resources like OpenCourser can help you find the courses and information needed to build a strong foundation and navigate your path in this fascinating discipline.
OpenCourser helps millions of learners each year. People visit us to learn workspace skills, ace their exams, and nurture their curiosity.
Our extensive catalog contains over 50,000 courses and twice as many books. Browse by search, by topic, or even by career interests. We'll match you to the right resources quickly.
Find this site helpful? Tell a friend about us.
We're supported by our community of learners. When you purchase or subscribe to courses and programs or purchase books, we may earn a commission from our partners.
Your purchases help us maintain our catalog and keep our servers humming without ads.
Thank you for supporting OpenCourser.